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^'T\Vcrv\_w^ n.. 


WHAT EVERY OWNER 
SHOULD KNOW 


ABOUT HIS 


AUTOMOBILE 


A Practical Treatise on the Management and Operation of 
the Automobile. Also a safe Buying Guide for the 
Automobile and Accessory Buyer. Together with 
more than 500 Practical Suggestions Regard¬ 
ing Common Automobile Troubles and 
their Remedies. A Glossary of 
Automobile Terms and Com¬ 
plete Indexes to both 
Text and Adver¬ 
tisers. 

This copy is sent to you with the Compliments of the Advertisers 
and Publishers 



NEW YORK 

AUTO-MERCURY PUBLISHING CO., Inc. 
220 West 42nd Street 

1914 ' ... 


Price: Two Dollars 


Copyright, 1914 

BY THE AUTO-MERCURY PUBLISHING COMPANY 
NEW YORK 



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©aA374587 

M 25 1914 

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FOREWORD 


T here is a twofold object in publishing this book: First, to meet an 
urgent need for a practical handbook for everyone who owns or 
operates a motor car; secondly, to afford a means of bringing the 
autoist in direct touch with the most reliable manufacturers of automobiles, 
accessories, and other necessities or luxuries that every automobile owner 
purchases from time to time. 

IF The more you know about your motor car, whether you run it or not, 
the more economical will be its upkeep, and the greater your pleasure from 
its use. 

IF We know that the average book of this class is as hard to understand as 
the mechanism of the car itself; therefore, we believe that you and thou¬ 
sands of other enthusiastic motorists will appreciate this book, which is 
intensely practical, and devoid of all possible technical terms, yet so thor¬ 
ough as to be of valuable service to the amateur, as well as the most experi¬ 
enced in car operation. 

IF Prominent automobile engineers to whom preliminary proofs have been 
submitted unanimously pronounce it to be the most thorough and prac¬ 
tical book of its kind published. 

IF There’s hardly a detail about your car that it does not cover—it not 
only offers a practical remedy for every auto trouble, but it is also your 
safest guide to the avoidance of automobile troubles. 

IF We want you to study it carefully, no matter what car you own. Be 
guided hy the advice contained herein, to a greater appreciation of your car 
and its most economical operation. 

IF The Author and Publishers have maintained the strictest censorship over 
all advertising. Therefore, you can safely make it your Buying Directory, 
for every automobile, accessory, or other article advertised herein is of a 
character and quality that merits your patronage. 

^ Keep this Book at hand. Consult it frequently. Patronize its advertisers. 
^ You are certain of the greatest satisfaction if you do, and you will have 
shown full appreciation of our effort to give you—free of cost—a Book 
that will he of every-day Service to you. 


The Advertisers and Publishers. 


TABLE I. OVERSIZE TIRES. 


Regular Oyer- f -Oversize Sizes to Fit the 

Size. size. 


28 

X 

3 

29 

X 

3 34 

Penna 

Ajax 


30 

X 

3 

31 

X 

334 

Penna 

Ajax 

Shawmut 

32 

X 

3 

33 

X 

334 

Penna 



30 

X 

334 

31 

X 

4 

Penna 

Ajax 

Shawmut 

32 

X 

334 

33 

X 

4 

Penna 

Ajax . 

Shawmut 

34 

X 

334 

35 

X 

4 

Penna 

Ajax 

Shawmut 

36 

X 

334 

37 

X 

4 

Penna 



30 

X 

4 

31 

X 

434 


.... 

Shawmut 

32 

X 

4 

33 

X 

434 

Penna 


Shawmut 

34 

X 

4 

35 

X 

434 

Penna 

Ajax 

Shawmut 

36 

X 

4 

37 

X 

41/2 

Penna 

Ajax 


34 

X 

434 

35 

X 

5 

Penna 

Ajax 


36 

X 

434 

37 

X 

5 

Penna 

Ajax 

Shawmut 

38 

X 

434 

39 

X 

5 

Penna 


Shawmut 

42 

X 

434 

43 

X 

5 

Penna 



36 

X 

5 

37 

X 

534 

Penna 

Ajax 


36 

X 

5 

38 

X 

6 

Penna 


Shawmut 

36 

X 

534 

37 

X 

6 

Penna 



38 

X 

534 

39 

X 

6 

Penna 




Same Clincher, QD Clincher, or Straight Wall- 
(Dunlop) Rim. 




. Firestone 



. Fire.stone 




. Firestone 

Prince 

Michelin . 

. Firestone 

Prince 

Michelin . 






Prince 

Prince 

Prince 

Prince 

Michelin 

Michelin 

Michelin QD 
Michelin QD 
Michelin QD 
Michelin QD 

Firestone 

Firestone 

Firestone 

Firestone 







Firestone 

Prince 




TABLE 11. OVERSIZE TIRES. 


28 

X 

3 

29 

X 

334 

30 

X 

3 

31 

X 

334 

32 

X 

3 

33 

X 

33 ^ 

30 

X 

334 

31 

X 

4 

32 

X 

334 

33 

X 

4 

34 

X 

334 

35 

X 

4 

36 

X 

334 

37 

X 

5 

30 

X 

4 

31 

X 

434 

32 

X 

4 

33 

X 

434 

34 

X 

4 

35 

X 

434 

36 

X 

4 

37 

X 

434 

40 

X 

4 

41 

X 

434 

32 

X 

434 

33 

X 

5 

34 

X 

434 

35 

X 

5 

36 

X 

434 

37 

X 

5 

38 

X 

434 

39 

X 

5 

40 

X 

434 

41 

X 

5 

42 

X 

434 

43 

X 

5 

36 

X 

5 

37 

X 

534 

36 

X 

5 

38 

X 

6 

36 

X 

534 

37 

X 

6 

38 

X 

534 

39 

X 

6 

34 

X 

434 

36 

X 

534 

36 

X 

434 

38 

X 

534 


. Fisk Cl . 

. Fisk Cl . 

. Fisk Cl . 

Firestone QD Fisk Cl Fisk QD, BO 

Firestone QD, SS Fisk Cl Fisk QD, BO 

Firestone QD, SS Fisk Cl Fisk QD 

Firestone QD Fisk Cl Fisk QD 


.Diamond 

. Kelly- Diamond 

. Kelly- Diamond 

Fisk SS Kelly- Diamond 
Fisk SS Kelly- Diamond 

. Kelly- Diamond 

.Diamond 


Lee PP* Lee R* 


Lee PP Lee R 
Lee PP Lee R 
Lee PP Lee R 


Firestone QD 
Firestone QD 


Firestone QD 
Firestone QD 


Firestone QD 


Firestone QD 
Firestone QD 


Firestone QD 


. . Kelly- Diamond .. 

Fisk Cl Fisk QD Fisk SS Kelly- Diamond Lee PP Lee R 

Fisk Cl Fisk QD Fisk SS Kelly- Diamond Lee PP Lee R 

Fisk Cl Fisk QD . 

Fisk Cl Fisk QD, . Kelly- Diamond Lee PP Lee R 

Fisk Cl Fisk QD, BO Fisk SS Kelly- Diamond Lee PP Lee R 

. Fisk QD . Kelly- Diamond . 

. Fisk QD Diamond . 

Fisk Cl Fisk QD .Diamond . 

. . Kelly- Diamond Lee PP Lee R 


Diamond 

. . Kelly- Diamond 

Fisk OD, BO .Diamond 

Fisk BO . 


28 X 3 
30 X 3 
32 X 3 
30 X ZVi 
32 X 334 
34 X 334 
36 X 334 
32 X 4 
34 X 4 
36 X 4 
40 X 4 
34 X 434 
36 X 434 
38 X 434 
40 X 434 
42 X 434 
36 X 5 
36 X 334 
38 X 534 
42 X 4 
40 X 534 
42 X 434 


29 

X 

334 

31 

X 

334 

33 

X 

334 

31 

X 

4 

33 

X 

4 

35 

X 

4 

37 

X 

4 

33 

X 

434 

35 

X 

434 

37 

X 

434 

41 

X 

434 

35 

X 

5 

37 

X 

5 

39 

X 

5 

41 

X 

5 

43 

X 

5 

37 

X 

534 

37 

X 

6 

39 

X 

6 

43 

X, 

434 

41 

X 

6 

44 

X 

5 


TABLE III. OVERSIZE TIRES. 


Goodrich Cl 
Goodrich Cl 
Goodrich Cl 
Goodrich Cl 
Goodrich Cl 
Goodrich Cl 
Goodrich Cl 
Goodrich Cl 
Goodrich Cl 
Goodrich Cl 
Goodrich Cl 
Goodrich Cl 
Goodrich Cl 


Goodrich Cl 
Goodrich Cl 


Goodrich QD 
Goodrich QD 
Goodrich QD 
Goodrich QD 
Goodrich QD 
Goodrich QD 
Goodrich QD 
Goodrich QD 
Goodrich QD 
Goodrich QD 


. Knight 

Goodrich SS Knight 

. Knight 

Goodrich SS Knight 
Goodrich SS Knight 
Goodrich SS Knight 
Goodrich SS Knight 
Goodrich SS Knight 
Goodrich SS Knight 
Goodrich SS Knight 


Goodrich QD 
Goodrich QD 
Goodrich QD 
Goodrich QD 
Goodrich QD 
Goodrich QD 
Goodrich QD 
Goodrich QD 
Goodrich QD 
Goodrich QD 


Goodrich SS Knight 
Goodrich SS Knight 
. Knight 


Knight 

Knight 


Knight 


Walpole 

Walpole 

Walpole 

Walpole 

Walpole 

Walpole 

Walpole 

Walpole 

Walpole 

Walpole 


Walpole 

Walpole 

Walpole 

Walpole 

Walpole 


Walpole 

Walpole 


Walpole 


Imperial Cl, QD, SS 
Imperial Cl, QD, SS 


Imperial Cl, QD, SS 
Imperial Cl, QD, SS 
Imperial Cl, QD, SS 
Imperial Cl, QD, SS 
Imperial Cl, QD, SS 


Imperial Cl, QD, SS 


Imperial Cl, QD, SS 
Imperial Cl, QD, SS 


R — Regular. 

PP—Punctureproof. 



























































































































































Operating and Caring for the Motor Car 



T hrottle Level 


Steer^ ^eel 
^ Steerii ^ 
i ^eedom^ S 


How the Various Parts of the Modern Automohile Work 
and How Their More Common Troubles are Remedied 
Explained in Simple Language 

By 

Morris A. Hall, M.E. 

Member Society of Automobile Engineers 
Member American Society of Mechanical Engineers 

CHAPTER I. 

The automobile is the first thing to be learned, its operation in 
DRIVING a manner which will be safe for both the operator and the public 
being of prime importance, even more, perhaps, than a clear 
understanding of the principles upon which the various parts work. The latter 


Fig. 1 —View of the controlling mechanism of a modern car from 
the rear, showing what the novice driver must .master. 


QilGaT ^e^|S 
GasTa nj^ Pm^ 
Gas Pressure Gan 


Lubricatiop S^ btfe 
Metal P as h 
M^p eto 
























4 


The Operation of the Car 


should not be minimized at all, and every owner and driver of a motor car should 
make it a point to learn how every part works and why it works that way. 
Otherwsie, he will be completely at sea when trouble comes. 

Driving is easily and quickly learned, but should be taken up in a systematic and 
regular manner, in order to learn it right. There are eight things which must be 
operated in driving the car, some of which require to be operated two and three at 
a time. For this reason, it is important to learn to operate them right in the first 
place, and to know what result should be expected when they are so operated. 

These eight items, in the order in which they should be mastered, are: 

1— Steering. 

2— Operation of foot brakes. 6—Control of the engine by means of 

3— Operation of hand brakes. the spark lever. 

4— Operation of clutch, 7—Horn or warning signal. 

5— Control of the engine by means of 8—Changing speeds. 

the throttle lever. 

Second only to these, and of equal importance to the operator of the machine, 
are what might be called the daily needs of the machine, the attention to the little 
things without which it will not operate or will operate in a poor, faulty, or dan¬ 
gerous manner. These should be considered in detail by the novice driver, even 
before he can drive well, for if they be not taken care of, driving may become out 
of the question or impossible. 

A good way in which to remember these little matters which must be at¬ 
tended to before it is certain that the motor and other parts of the car will start 
and operate properly during the whole trip is to compose some little word which 
will give the clue to all these matters. As a suggestion, the writer offers the two 
words WANTS and GOT. The driver can remember these well enough if he 
will ask himself the very natural questions: What do I WANT ? and Have I 
GOT everything? These two words stand for the following necessities: 


W—ater 

A—cetylene or Lamps 
N—uts & bolts 
T—ire pressure 
S—park retarded. 


G—asoline 
O—il 

T—esting brakes and similar important 
parts 


To explain these briefly. Water would represent the inquiry: Does the 
water system need any attention, or is it fully filled ? This might include as well 
the query: Is the pump working properly? etc. Acetylene would stand for the 
questions: Have the lamps been attended to ? Kerosene form filled with oil ? Is 
gas tank charged enough to see us through the night? and the other natural 
questions about the lighting system. 

Many nuts and bolts come loose or shake off, and it is possible to lose any 
important or valuable part as well as cripple the car by neglecting these little 
things. For that reason, it is well to go over all the important and handy nuts 
and bolts before starting out. The majority of tires are not inflated enough, 
but if the tires have been pumped up lately and are found soft, it is a sign of 
leakage somewhere. All tires and tire-repair material should be made sure of 
before starting. - 


How to Remedy the Most Common Automobile Troubles 


1. Wlien the motor heats very quickly. The 

radiator may be empty or the water supply 
very low, ^ 

2. When the cooling* system has been filled 
properly hut the motor still heats up quickly. 

The water connections may be leaking" badly, 
particularly where rubber hose joins metal 
pipes together. Or the pet cock at the bot¬ 
tom of the system may have been opened 
accidentally. 

3. When the cooling* system is absolutely all 
rlg’ht throughout, but the engine heats very 
quickly. The spark may be advanced too far 
or retarded too far, both which cause over¬ 
heating under some circumstances. 

4. When cooling system is all right through¬ 
out and the spark is set correctly for its run¬ 
ning* speedf but the engine still heats very 


quickly. The lubricant may be too low, so 
that the cylinders have become dry. This 
may be caused by an obstruction in the oil 
feed pipes, shearing off of a pin in the oil 
pump drive as much as by a lack of oil. 

5. How hot should the cooling system get, 
running properly? On long runs, it may very 
properly get so warm that a person can just 
touch the radiator with the bare hand but 
cannot hold it there without getting burned. 
On very heavy work, such as very long hills, 
shorter ones taken at a very fast speed, 
heavy pulling through deep sand, mud or 
stones, or under any circumstances under 
which the motor must run very fast or pull 
very hard for a long time it may get so hot 
that a person cannot even touch the 
radiator without getting burned. But 






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6 


The Operation of the Car 



RadicJtDn 


Unless the spark is retarded, before trying to crank on a car which is not 
fitted with a self-starter, the operator is liable to break his arm or wrist, or do 
some injury to himself otherwise. Always retard the spark as far as it will go 
in stopping, then it will be ready for starting the next time—that is, it will have 
to be moved deliberately before the driver can injure himself through a backfire 
while cranking. 

Of course, gasoline is important; no machine will run without fuel, and 
every driver should actually look into the tank before starting out, no matter how 
much fuel he may think is in it. Oil is of equal or greater importance, and the 
driver should know for a certainty that the lubricator or crankcase is filled, as 
the case may be, and that a supply may be obtained on the route, or else that an 
extra supply is carried on the car. 

Unless the brakes work well and respond quickly, they will be useless to the 
operator, and while he is still in the novice class he should try them out before 
starting on any kind of a long trip or one in which any steep hills are to be 
encountered. 

Each one of these items will be taken care of later on, in its proper place, and 
considered in more detail, so what has been said will suffice for the present. To re¬ 
turn to the eight most important items in car operation, the first of these is steering. 

comes first, because unless the driver be skilled in handling the 
STEERING steering wheel, he is running great danger, as well as jeopardizing 
others. It is very easy to turn the wheel a trifle too far and thus 
steer the car into another coming along, or to turn it too little and strike a curb 

tree. In 


_ing Wheel 

Spark Lever 

Brqke lever 
Gear Lever 
’ Button 
the f^dal 


Fig. 2 —Another car seen from the rear, showing the control parts with the dash¬ 
board in place. Two additional control parts will be noted over Fig. 1. 


or 

general, steer¬ 
ing wheels 
are from 14 
to 18 or more 
inches in di¬ 
ameter, with 
an oval cross 
section about 
I inch thick 
by IE2 to 2 
inches wide. 
This is a con¬ 
venient size 
for the hand 
to grasp. To 
facilitate 
grasping the 
wheel readily, 
many firms 


make the surface rough in one manner or another, as deep grooves cut around 
its surface, notches on the inside, the use of a rough-surfaced material, etc. 


unless the water is very low, or unless 
the car is running through the mountains, it 
should never get so hot that steam will be 
seen coming from the radiator. 

6. When the engine backfires at starting". 
The spark has not been retarded, or, if so, 
not enough. 

7. Spark lever has been retarded, but motor 
still backfires regTxlarly at every turn. The 

rod connections between the spark lever and 
the magneto may have become disconnected 
or broken. 

8. Spark lever and connections are correct, 
but motor will not start. If a spark is ob¬ 
tained in each and every cylinder, the gas 
must be at fault. See if the tank contains any 
fuel. 

9. Spark is correct throughout and tank has 


sufficient g'asoline, but engine will not start. 

The fuel may be shut off, or, if not, the 
outlet side of the tank may be so low that 
the fuel will not flow to the carburetor. 

10. What is the remedy for this? If more fuel 
is available, fill the tank; if not, push the 
car along on the road, so that the side which 
is too low becomes high enough to start the 
fuel flowing. Then start the engine, and in 
driving to the nearest fuel supply station, 
keep the low side of the car upon the high 
part of the road. Sometimes, trouble of this 
kind may be remedied by bending the copper 
pipe from the gas tank to the carburetor in 
such a way as to take out the low spots and 
make a more nearly straight line from tank 
outlet to carburetor. If the outlet is on one 
side and the carburetor on the other, it may 

















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The Operation of the Car 


The steering wheel is attached to the steering post by means of three, four or 
six arms of metal, four being generally used. The operator should not try to turn 
the wheel by means of these, but should use the rim, grasp it at the two sides with 
the thumbs above and all the fingers below and wrapped around it. This is much 
the same way in which a baseball bat is held, except that instead of one hand being 
alongside or above the other in a parallel line, the two are spread apart the diam¬ 
eter of the wheel. In turning the wheel, the hand on the side toward which the 
car is to be turned should have a firm grip on the surface until the turn is com¬ 
pleted. If desired, the other hand need not grasp it so tightly and turn with it, but 
can be opened slightly and the wheel allowed to slide through its fingers. 

The elbows should be held in close to the side, and if the wheel is not too 
large nor too small, the forearms will come straight forward from the body in 
parallel lines. This position is most comfortable, while the elbows against the 
sides of the body give a firm brace against any road shock which is transmitted 
back through the steering gear. With the fingers below the wheel and wrapped 
around it as outlined above, the operation of spark and throttle levers will be 
most simply and easily accomplished. This will be explained later. 

Both of the views of cars which have been shown thus far present right- 
hand control with right-hand levers—that is, the steering post was located on the 
right-hand side of the chassis, with the levers on the same side when they would 
be operated by means of the right hand only. In order not to confuse the driver, 
no other forms will be shown at this time, although it should be stated that the 
present tendency is toward the location of the steering post on the left side in¬ 
stead of the right, as shown, in which position right-hand levers come in the 
center of the chassis. This is designated as left-side control with central levers, 
and, as will be explained later, is the ultimate outgrowth of the original right- 
control right-lever form on the one hand, and the left-control left lever’s first 
departure from it. 

While it has been pointed out above how steering is done, it has not been 
explained in detail as to just what happens. This will be useful because, knowing 
what parts must move or turn, the driver can use more care in protecting, oiling, 
or otherwise taking care of those particular ones. Fig. 4 will point out the parts 
in detail and the functions of each, without any others to distract the attention. 
In this, the steering wheel is marked A. It is shown with four arms B, and is 
attached to the upper end of the steering post C. The latter terminates at its 
lower end in a housing D, which encloses the worm and gear used to turn the 
rotary motion in a vertical plane into similar motion in a horizontal plane. The 
worm is fixed to the steering post shaft while the gear is fastened to the steering 
arm E. A rotation of the wheel A turns the former, which in turn rotates the 
latter, this giving a partial swing to the arm E. To the lower end E of the 
last named, which moves in a back-and-forth line, is attached the steering link or 
steering rod G. This is fastened to the end I of the steering arm M of the right- 
hand knuckle J by the universal connection H. It should be explained that a uni¬ 
versal connection is one which will allow of motion in any direction or any plane. 
Usually this is brought about by a ball and socket joint, as in this case, the end of 


be possible to turn the tank end for end 
without emptying- it. 

11. If fuel system is all right throughout and 
gasoline is flowing to the carburetor, while 
sparking system appears to be right, but en¬ 
gine still -will not start. Examine the spark 
plugs; one may have been screwed out and 
forgotten, or one may be broken. Many own¬ 
ers lock their cars by unscrewing a spark 
plug, but forget this when they start again, 
and then wonder what the trouble is. Porce¬ 
lain plugs break more easily than mica. This 
trouble may be noted in a moment by taking 
hold of the tops of the plugs, one at a time; 
if broken, it will be possible to move the top, 
otherwise not. 

12. Engine starts properly and runs very 
well, but when clutch is thrown out, gear en¬ 
gaged, and then clutch let in again, the car 


will not start and the engine stops. The 

driver has forgotten to take off the emer¬ 
gency brake, which holds the car and stalls 
the engine. 

13. Engine starts properly, brake is off, clutch 
seems O. K., but when gear is engaged and 
clutch let in engine runs fast and car does 

not move. The gear may not have engaged, 
or, if so, slipped out again when the power 
was applied. Many times on a rough road, 
particularly when in high gear, with an old 
car, the car will suddenly come to a stand¬ 
still and the engine will race. The trouble 
is that the gear has shaken out of mesh, 
worn pins in the lever and rod connections, 
allowing this. 

14. Everything seems O.K., but on ascending 
a slight grade the car begins to surge forward, 
lose ground, then surge forward again, con- 




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11 ) 


The Operation of the Car 



1 being the ball and within the casing H, the socket and an adjustment for taking 
up wear. 

Now the arm M has a fork shape, the other part P having a ball end 0 as 
well. This is enclosed in a socket (with an adjustment) on the right-hand end of 
the cross rod to the other knuckle, where it is fastened by means of the other ball 
and socket joint Q. When the wheel is turned to the left as the small arrow 
shows, the worm turns with it to the left. This rotates the worm gear toward 

the driver, and with it the 
lever E and the rod G. This 
pulls back the lever arm M, 
and moves the knuckle / about 
its center line K-L. The re¬ 
sult is the outer end with 'its 
bearings Z-Z, is moved for¬ 
ward, as the arrow shows. At 
the same time, the arm P with 
its ball joint O is moved to the 
right, drawing the other end 
. . . Q with it. The latter move- 

Fig. 3—Steering gear of the Pierce-Arrow car, showing how 1 1 ^ 

this is connected with the front axle and how the meut mOVeS tUe lett-nanQ 

various parts work. kiiuckle about its Center line, 


pulling it backward, as the arrow indicates. 

A moment’s consideration of this will show that the movement of the right- 
hand axle end forward means that the right-hand wheel is turned in or to the left, 
Avhile moving the left-hand axle end backward turns the left-hand wheel out or 
to the left. Thus both wheels are turned to the left together, and referring back 
to the motion of the hand wheel, by a turn of that to the left. This is as it 
should be; a turn of the wheel to the left produces a movement of the automobile 
in that direction, while a turn to the right moves the car in that direction. 

To those who have had previous experience with motorboats, this is a little 
bit confusing at first, for the movement of a boat is just the opposite of its tiller. 
There a turn to the left steers the boat to the right, while a turn to the right 
heads the boat to the left. 

From what has been said, it is apparent that there are eight points in the 
steering system which require constant attention and lubrication. These are: 
(f) The bearing of the steering shaft within the post; (2) the worm and gear; 
(3 and 4) the ball and socket joints at each end of the steering rod G; (5 and 6) 
at both ends of the connecting link O to Q, and (7 and 8) the two steering 
knuckles. A safe rule for lubrication is to oil i monthly and 3 to 6 weekly, and 
grease 2 monthly and 7 and 8 weekly. The adjustments at 3, 4, 5 and 6 should 
have attention every second month, while once a year is often enough for the 
steering gear and knuckles. 


is, next to steering, the most important item for the novice to 
USING THE learn. Granting that the car has been started by some one else 
BRAKES and is in good running order, it will continue to run in the hands 
of the novice until it be stopped. This may be accomplished in 
either one of two ways: Using the brakes, or stopping the motor. 


tinning' this even when the top of the hill 
has been reached and the down grade started. 

The fuel tank is almost empty, but the side 
movements of the car allow a little of what 
gasoline is left to splash through to the car¬ 
buretor each time there is such a movement. 
This started when climbing the hill, but con¬ 
tinued after the crest was passed. Remedy: 
More fuel, or open the reserve-tank connec¬ 
tion. 

15. When the steering- wheel turns for part of 
a turn without turning- the front wheels. 

The wheel is loose on the steering post and 


should be fitted with a new key, one that fits 
more tightly. 

16. When the turning- of the steering- wheel 
operates hut one front wheel in a similar 
manner. The cross rod or tie rod, which 
should connect the two steering knuckles, is 
broken or has parted or become loose. 

17. When the steering- wheel turns part of a 
turn without turning- the front wheels as in 
No. 1 hut the hand wheel is not loose. In 
this case, the worm and sector which com¬ 
prise the mechanism of the steering gear 







12 


The Operation of the Car 


Practically all cars, nowadays, have two complete and separate sets of brakes, 
both located on the rear wheels. One is operated by the right-hand foot pedal, 
and is called the service or running brake. It is also referred to frequently as the 
foot brake on account of its method of operation by the right foot. When the 
novice operator sees danger ahead or what appears to him like danger, the first 
thing to do—and it must be done as 
quickly as possible—is to stop the car. 

The danger being in front of him, he, 
approaching it rapidly, involuntarily 
throws forward feet and hands to pro¬ 
tect himself. This involuntary move¬ 
ment is useful in that it serves to operate 
the foot brake, the forward movement of 
the right foot applying this set to the 
rear wheels, and checking the forward 
movement of the car. 

The second set of brakes is called 
the emergency brake, or, because of its 
method of operation by the outside hand 
lever, the hand brake. This set is lo¬ 
cated on the rear wheels also, and gener¬ 
ally is larger and more powerful. The 
longer hand lever (as compared with a 
short foot pedal) gives a greater lever¬ 
age, and the driver can exert great force 
on this set. In fact, a good test of the 
size of a car’s emergency brakes is the ability to hold the wheels from operating 
against half the power of the motor. 

When the operator notes that even with the foot brake applied the car con¬ 
tinues to approach the danger, his second movement is to draw back away from 
it. This is useful also, in that the emergency brake lever is set by drawing it 
backward. This lever carries a ratchet at its lower end, so that whatever move¬ 
ment is given to the brake lever by the hand is retained automatically, until the 
driver releases the catch and lets it go of his own free will. This is extremely 
useful in that the brake may be applied as far as it will go apparently, and then 
if the car continues to move forward, with the energy of desperation the driver 
may grasp the handle again and pull it toward him a couple more notches. 

When this lever has been put on for a certain distance and amount, as pre¬ 
determined by the manufacturer of the car, it throws out of connection the engine 
and the wheels, so that the power of the former is no longer applied to driving 
the car, and the brakes must absorb only the momentum of the moving car, due to 
its weight and speed. 

The two sketches herewith. Fig. 5, showing the service brakes, and Fig. 6, 
showing the emergency set, present the operation of these very important mem¬ 
bers in a more graphic and convincing manner, indicating at the same time the 



wheel is turned. 


must be replaced as they show signs of seri¬ 
ous wear. 

18. Wheii there is no lost movement or hack 
lash hut the steering- is uneven and jerky. 

One of the rods must be bent or the various 
parts need lubrication, or both. 

19, The steering- wheel shakes with movement 
of the car, sometimes very hadly, enough to 
tire the arms in a short drive. It is not well 
attached to the dash and frame. If there is 
no place for additional fastenings, have a 
new brace made which will hold it tightly. 
This may run from the steering post to the 
side frame, just back of the dash. 

20. The hall joint end is loose in its socket. 
To give a universal movement, the ball joint 
is necessary. If this wears down badly on 
two sides so as to make it flat there, it may 
fall out of the elongated hole in which it is 


supposed to work. Remedy: A new ball end. 
Temporary remedy: A leather boot which 
will hold it in place and provide good lubri¬ 
cation at all times. 

21. Steering troubles caused oy worn front 
axle bearings. These may be detected by 
jacking up the front wheels clear of the 
ground, then rocking one of them, using both 
hands. If it will rock, there is wear, and 
this calls for renewed or new bearings. 

22. After hitting a low obstruction in the road 
the front wheels toe in and will not respond 
to the steering gear. The front tie rod or 
cross connecting rod has been bent backward, 
thus pulling the wheels in toward one an¬ 
other. Remedy: Straighten the rod as much 
as possible under the car, so as to free the 
ends from binding, then take it off and finish 
the straightening process. 































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14 


The Operation of the Car 


components of the system, so that it makes caring for them more simple. Re¬ 
ferring to Fig. 5, it will be noted that this moves forward in the arc of a circle 


SeTxrice or 


^rak§> pedal ojhicb i<D 

prec3c36ct dou^r?: if 
mu-^t 6e held douun 
the foot. 


When the forward lever 
Zc3 nioued baclx^ord thie> 
leueralao iiiouea bec/o- 
voa rd 


pall or> the rod. di-'auvcS 
batf of the braU^ ti.^f>t, ivhile 
further action of the leuer 
dLrQuu<3 the other half ti^fit 





Preaeino pedal douirft 
tama tnis tube C? ujith} 
it the lever- 


fdouin^ the upper lever 
bcichj) tam(5 the iov^er 
leuer toward 


•Daiod hrak^ or> ou^aide oi 

rear bu.b bralx^ drcima. 


Fig. 5—Diagram showing the action of the usual form of service or running brakes. 


as depressed by the foot. It is attached to a cross shaft, or tube, so that the latter 
moves when it moves. There is also attached to this member what might be 
called the first lever for the lack of a better name. This being attached to the 
tube or shaft must move with it; it is connected by means of an almost horizontal 
rod of small diameter to what we may call the second lever, which is thus forced 
to move when the first lever moves and in the same direction. 

This is attached to a second tube, somewhere near the middle. At the ends 
of this, close to the frame as possible, are fixed a pair of short levers, which 
we will call the third levers. Each one of these has a rod running from it to the 
actual brake lever on its side. Thus the operation of the third levers applies the 
band brakes, more or less, according to the force with which it is moved. As 
the second lever actuates both of these, and is in turn forced to move by the 


23. After hitting" an ohstrnction in the road, 
the wheels toe out hadly hut at diiferent an- 
g‘les, and only one will respond to the steer¬ 
ing" g"ear. The front tie rod has pulled apart 
where it was welded or brazed. Take it off 
and have the end rewelded or rebrazed in 
place, being careful to get the length just 
right. 

24. When steering" becomes erratic and wheels 
turn from one side of the road to the other 
■without apparent cause. The front axle is 
doubtless badly bent and the erratic actions 
when steering will continue until the bend is 
found and straightened. 

25. When brake lever is applied, the brakes 
grip but later slip. Surface of the brake lin¬ 
ing is either slippery from grease or oil, or 
else is worn through, so the metal rivets take 
hold at first and then slip. In the first case, 


clean brake lining with kerosene, then water, 
then dry. In the second, use new lining. 

26. When brake lever is applied, no result for 
some time, then, with more pressure, brakes 
begin to take hold. Poor adjustment, not 
tight enough, and probable lost motion in the 
brake operating rods and levers. Try each 
joint or connection for wear, then readjust 
brake to a smaller diameter. 

27. When brakes are applied car slews around 
to one side, the same as when skidding". The 

brakes are not equalized properly, and one is 
taking hold before the other begins to act. 
Readjust the equalizing device. 

28. Both brakes take hold when applied, but 
do not stop the car. Brakes are either too small 
for the car or poorly adjusted. Adjust to 
take hold more tightly. 


















16 


The Operation of the Car 


movements of the first lever which are produced by the pressure of the toe on the 
brake pedal, it may be seen how a movement of the right foot checks the whole 
vehicle. 

This system has nothing to hold the brakes on when they are applied, for 
which reason the extent of their application is governed by the amount of pres¬ 
sure applied originally by the foot and the length of time it is kept on. To hold 
the car more or less permanently by means of this brake, it becomes necessary to 
exert pressure upon its pedal for that length of time. This is not convenient, nor, 
generally speaking, is the service brake used in this manner. It is used for a 
short and more or less temporary check upon the vehicle’s speed while running, as 
for instance when approaching a narrow but deep hole across the road. Then the 
vehicle would be checked quickly so that the occupants of the car would not 
suffer a severe bump such as would be the case in passing over this hole at speed. 

Referring next to Fig. 6, this outlines in a similar manner the components of 
the emergency brake system. The operating member of this is the hand lever at 
the side of the car, usually but not always alongside the gear shifting lever and 




hand, l&uer which operate^) 
Q-mer^evc^ bro'k^ . This is 
pulled bacl(cyQrd; the ratchet 
holds itir> whatewer pos- 
'itioo itis in until I'eleased 
bo means of the button 
QT the top 




Drai^inp front leuer fc^ard draws 
this one foru/Qi''d also. This turns the 
shaft, mothe third leuer. ftctualljj 
there are two'thirds. one on each 
side of the car. each operating 
G brak^ ^ of ltd own. 


// 



Pullir^ the third leuer forward 
draws the brah^ leuer forward as 
well, rqis rnotion mooes the 
00711, e-^pa77dinp the brak^ 

'Shoes so the<^ tal^ bold of the> 
rnsicle hrah^ cLrcums o?? the 
T'ear druTmc> 


Pulling hand 
leuer bac/o 
nioues the sniaH 
leuer foruuG7''di as 
it is fixed to the 
same shaft 


Sketch indicating the components and method of operating the usual form of emergency brake. 


Operating on the same shaft or tube as an axis. This may be made to push for¬ 
ward, which was quite general in the early days, or pull backward, which is 
nearly universal now. The latter form is shown in the sketch. 

This lever is provided with a ratchet so that when the lever is drawn back 
the latter slips over notch after notch and will hold the lever and with it the 


29. When emerg'ency brake is applied and, 
after releasing* same, the car will not start. 

Brake spring*, which returns brake system to 
the “off” position, is too weak and must be 
renewed. 

30. When service brake cannot he applied 
g'radually, hut refuses to take hold, then 
g'rahs hold. A combination of poor adjust¬ 
ment with worn brake lining*. New lining* 
and a proper adjustment will fix this. 

31. When brake rods rattle and make a gireat 
deal of noise. They pass over a frame mem¬ 
ber somewhere just at a point where there is 
considerable length to whip up and down. 
Wrap with tape or rags. 

32. When there is considerable give in the 
brake system, which always takes hold, how¬ 
ever, This indicates considerable wear in 


the various pin connections. If serious, it 
means new pins. Possibly new rod ends, 
also. 

33. When clutch pedal is let in, the clutch 
does not take hold. Slipping. Remedy: Clean 
surface of leather or lining with kerosene, 
then wash and dry. Apply with a powdered 
chalk, or glass powder. 

34. When pedal is let in, clutch takes hold 
*too quickly. Pierce clutch. Remedy: Read¬ 
just spring to give less tension, also look over 
operating rods_ and pins for wear. 

35. Clutch will no*t engage readily when out 
or disengage when once in. Sticks, due to lack 
of lubricant. Also possible if of cone type, 
that the edge of the leather has worn to a 
shoulder larger in diameter than female part. 
Remedy for this: New lining. 









. * »» 






18 


The Operation of the Car 


complete braking system which it controls, in any position in which it is left. 
More than simply holding it for a short time, it will retain the whole system as 
left for an indefinite length of time. Attached to the tube or shaft which forms 
the axis of this lever’s movement is what will be called the first lever (as in the 
case of the running brake system). This moves with the hand lever, its direction 
and amount of movement depending upon the manner in which it is placed and 
its size. As sketched out, a backward movement of the hand lever will produce a 
forward motion of the first lever. This is connected to the second by means of a 
rod, through which the latter will be pulled forward. 

This second lever in turn is attached to a tube, near the ends of which are a 
pair of third levers. Consequently movement of the second produces similar 
motion of the third levers. The two latter have each a rod connecting it with 
the lever on the expanding brakes which work within the brake drums on the 
rear wheels. The movement of this lever turns a cam which spreads apart the 
two halves of the brake. Spreading these pushes them against the surfaces of 
the brake drum all around, so that this lever motion applies the brakes and re¬ 
tards the movement of the car. The action of the hand, then, in pulling the brake 
lever backward ultimately turns the cam and thus applies the brakes. 

It will be noted that the length of this hand lever is considerable and that as 
compared with the first lever it is perhaps five or six times as long. This is the 
amount of leverage which this lever combination gives the driver, so that any 
pull which he applies is multiplied in this ratio. As levers one and two are of 
approximately equal size, none of this gain in leverage is lost there; similarly 
with lever three and the brake lever. The latter, however, as compared with the 
lever arm of the cam, has an advantage again of five or six to one, so that the 
total advantage of the driver becomes about 25 or 36 to i—that is, for every 
pound pull which he can apply to the brake handle, from 25 to 36 pounds is 
actually applied to the two surfaces of the brake upon which the cam operates. 
It is by this multiplication of effort that a comparatively small and weak man 
can overcome the power of the engine amounting to from 25 horsepower up¬ 
ward. 

Generally speaking, the emergency brake is considered the most important, 
and as the internal expanding form is thought to be stronger, more certain in its 
action, and less liable to wear out of adjustment, this type usually is used for the 
emergency. The simpler and cheaper band form is used for the service brake, as 
the constant use of the latter requires frequent relining, which necessitates a 
simple and easily accessible form. 

Again, it is easier to apply great force with the hand, particularly as the 
design will usually give greater leverage to a hand lever than a pedal. For this 
reason it is almost universal to make the hand-operated brake the emergency and 
the foot-operated form the running brake. There are, however, many instances, 
notably on motor trucks, where this situation is reversed and the emergency brakes 
are put on the pedal and the service brakes on the hand lever. 

As stated previously, the emergency is connected usually with the engine in 
such a way that at the limit of its motion—that is, when it is put on as hard as 


36. Switching* off either spark or throttle has 
no effect on operation of motor. Pin haft 
dropped out of rod connection so that it 
really does not shut off, the lever and rod 
moving* without moving the throttle or con¬ 
tact points. 

37. Opening and closing the throttle lever 
does not affect the action of the engine. The 

rod is either too loose, has a worn connection, 
or is broken. 

38. Movement in one direction, as opening 
throttle, gives results; hut in the opposite 
direction, as closing, does not. One of the 
holes at a rod connection has become worn 
and is very long. This lets the pin pull the 
rod in one direction but not in the other un¬ 
til this wear is taken up. 

39. With all connections intact, shutting off 
the throttle does not stop the engine’s running. 


There is a leak past the throttle valve, or 
else a previous owner has bored a hole in it 
to get this result. 

40. When spark lever is shut off, hut motor 
continued to run and gets an explosion in 
each cylinder each time. Red-hot parts in 
the interior of the cylinders are igniting the 
charge. These should be removed, as they 
will cause preignition and other troubles. 

41. Squeezing the hulh of the hand-operated 
horn brings forth no sound. The reed inside 
the horn has spread so widely that the air 
passing through will not cause it to vibrate. 
Take horn apart, and slide nail between reed 
and tube, then bend over. This will straight¬ 
en the reed and horn will operate correctly. 

42. Pressing the button of an electric horn 
does not bring forth a sound. The batteries 
have run down, or, if storage, are exhausted. 








20 


The Operation of the Car 


can be, it disconnects the motor from the driving mechanism. This device is 
called the clutch, and it forms a flexible means of connecting engine to trans¬ 
mission so that the two may be disconnected at will, this being necessary fre¬ 
quently when changing gears. Another need for a disconnecting means is at 
starting. The gasoline engine cannot start under a load, but must be started alone 
and then the load applied to it gradually as it gains speed and power. 

By interconnecting the emergency brake lever and this disconnecting means, 
it is certain that the driver will not be exerting his whole force to stop the car 
while the engine is continuing to drive it as before. Thus in an emergency which 
required instant stoppage the driver might forget about the engine and bend all 
of his energies to applying the brakes. If the power was still applied, undimin¬ 
ished, this effort would go for nothing and the car would continue to advance 
despite the desperate application of the brakes. To make such a system impos¬ 
sible, the extreme throw of the emergency brake, such as would be used only in 
the worst or most strenuous cases, applies this disconnecting means and automati¬ 
cally throws the engine out of connection. 

Another method of interconnection which has been used somewhat exten¬ 
sively since the craze for simplification set in is that in which the service brake is 
connected up to the clutch pedal in such a way that the first motion of throwing 
out the clutch does not apply the brake, but a further movement of the pedal in 
order to throw the clutch out completely throws on the brake. This is done on 
the assumption that when the clutch is thrown clear out, out to the limit, there 
is some need for brakes. When this arrangement is used, it is the general plan 
to do away entirely with the lever for the emergency brake, and put it on the 
other pedal which ordinarily applies the service brake. With this arrangement 
of the control system, when the driver wishes to stop very suddenly, he applies 
both pedals with all his strength. 

is the name of this disconnecting means, and it may be thrown 
THE CLUTCH out of or into operation at the will of the driver. Normally, 
a heavy spring holds it in engagement, the driver throwing it 
out by pressing the left-foot pedal forward. This pedal is called the clutch pedal 
for that reason. Whenever it is held forward at its extreme position, the engine 
will run idly and will not be driving the car. When it is released partly, but is 
still held forward a little bit, the engine will be exerting a little power but not all, 
only sufficient to give the wheels a partial turn now and then. This is called 
slipping the clutch, and is extremely Useful when the new driver finds himself in 
a tight place and does not know what to do. 

Then he may apply the left-foot pedal, slip the clutch somewhat and at the 
same time apply the right-foot pedal, thus putting on the running or service 
brakes. The former disconnects the engine, and the latter checks the car. This 
slows the vehicle down or brings it to a standstill, according to the force with 
which the two are applied. The car may then stand still, with the engine running 
as before, not driving the car, but ready to do so at any moment, until the danger 
is past or until the situation ahead becomes perfectly clear or sufficiently clear to 
give the driver confidence enough to go ahead anyhow. 


In the case of a rotary current generator sup¬ 
plying electricity, this can only be caused by 
a loose terminal, broken wire, or short cir¬ 
cuit. 

43. Pressing- the button of an electric horn 
gives forth a varying- and uncertain sound. 

The armature needs adjustment. In some 
horns, this may be moved toward or away 
from the diaphragm to increase or decrease 
the shrillness of the sound. 

4-4, In a bulb horn, pressure squeezes the bulb 
tog-ether, but it -will not fill out again. 
Either the rubber of the bulb is worn out 
and should be renewed, or else the air hole 
through the reed is clogged so that air can¬ 
not pass through it to the bulb interior. If 
the latter, the sound made by the horn will 
be very weak, squeaky, and not at all pene¬ 
trating or far-reaching. 


45. In chang-ing- from lo-wr speed to second, en¬ 
gine slows down. As load is added to the 
engine, it must be speeded up or given more 
gas to produce more power for this extra 
load. Remedy: Open the throttle a couple of 
notches before changing. 

46. In changing from second to high, the en¬ 
gine slows down very much and almost stops. 
It should have been given more gas before 
making the gear change. Remedy: Throw 
out the clutch, let the motor speed up, and 
then give it more gas before throwing in the 
clutch again. 

47. In changing do-wn from high to second, 
the engine slows down and seems to hesi¬ 
tate, then picks up again. The mixture is too 
rich, and when the throttle was opened wide 
for high speed and the gear lever moved 
into second, the amount of gas was not cut 










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22 


The Operation of the Car 



the motor is accomplished by means of the spark and throttle 
CHECKING lez ’ers. The engine runs because it is supplied with an explosive 

or combustible mixture of carbureted gas, which is ignited by 
means of an electric spark. The amount and character of the gas—that is, its 
richness or poorness considering the relative amounts of air and gasoline vapor 
in it, are varied by the throttle 
lever. This is a small, finger 
lever, located on the underside 
of the steering wheel or at¬ 
tached to the steering post be¬ 
low the wheel so that it may 
be reached without taking the 
fingers off the wheel but by 
simply unwrapping them and 
extending them straight 
downward. Another position 
is above the wheel and within 
its dished-out surface, as in 
Figs. I and 2 . This requires 
the driver to lift a finger of 
each hand over the top of the 
rim for operation, or in some 
cases to lift the hand off the 
wheel entirely. 

The action of the motor re¬ 
sulting from movement of the 
throttle lever is as follows: 

Opening the throttle (by 
means of the lever) gives the Fig. 7- 
engine more gas, and it speeds 
up at once or exerts more power; closing the throttle (by moving the finger lever 
in the opposite direction) gives the motor less gas and causes it to slow down 
and exert less power. After the driver has learned to run a car, he will find that 
a very large part of its operation is through the medium of the throttle lever, 
which thus becomes a most important part. 

To explain this action of the throttle lever and what results, look at Fig. 8, 
in which it is shown in detail. In the pipe from the carburetor is placed the 
throttle, which may be of several types, that shown being the most common or 
butterfly form. This consists of a flat, rou’nd plate, the diameter of which is 
approximately equal to the inside diameter of the inlet pipe. When this is turned 
across the pipe at right angle to its direction, then it would fill up the opening 
entirely. In that case, no gas would flow and the throttle is said to be shut off 
or is spoken of simply as “off.” 

This flat round plate has a central axis on which it turns, and outside of the 
inlet pipe this carries a short lever to which is attached the system of rods 


-A steering gear partly sectioned to show how 
the various levers operate. 


down. Consequently, the engine choked up, 
receiving too much gas. 

48. When on low speed, and sometimes on 
second, the gears make a great deal of noiae. 

This is necessary and can not be avoided en¬ 
tirely. It is more noticeable because on the 
high gear, which is direct drive, the only 
gears in use are locked together and do not 
mesh, tooth to tooth. Consequently, there is 
no meshing and no noise caused by it. On 
changing to second or low, there are two 
pairs of gears or three as the case may be, 
in mesh consequently considerable noise. 
This can be reduced by using a thick lubri¬ 
cant and a small amount of sawdust in it. 


49. When using high speed, there are no un¬ 
necessary noises in th*e transmission, hut on 
using any of the others, there seems to he a 
good deal of noise. It may be that the lay 
shaft, on which the secondary gears are lo¬ 
cated, is loose in its bearings or shifts end¬ 
wise due to poor adjustment and retention. 
This would make a great deal of needless 
noise. 

50. In changing speeds and throwing the 
gears as far as the levers will move, there is 
a great deal of grinding noise. Apparently the 
adjustment of the shifting rods and levers 
for length is out, so that the whole movement 
of the hand lever does not give a complete 





































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^4 


The Operation of the Car 


connecting it with the throttle lever on the hand wheel, which has been shown and 
described previously. A movement of this small finger lever then moves the flat 
throttle in the inlet pipe. Starting with this across the pipe or ofif, any movement 
of the lever will turn the plate out of an exact right angle to the direction of the 
inlet pipe, and thus will leave more or less of an opening at its ends—that is, the 
two parts far- ^_ 


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/ / 




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or cai''haretor 

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thest away 
from the cen¬ 
tral axis. 

Now when 
the engine is 
turned over, 
the movement 
of the pistons 
within the cyl¬ 
inders creates 
a suction, and 
if the throttle 
lever has been 
moved to 
open the 
throttle 
slightly, some 
c a r b u reted 
gas will be 
drawn in 
through these 
small open¬ 
ings. This will 
permit the en¬ 
gine to run, 
although but 
very slowly. 

When it is de¬ 
sired to run 
faster, the fin- Fig. 8- 
ger lever is 

moved, the throttle in the inlet pipe turns a little more, a larger orifice is created 
and more gas can be sucked into the cylinders. This will continue until the 
throttle plate has been turned so as to be parallel to the direction of the inlet pipe, 
when it will be open as wide as is possible and the maximum amount of gas will 
be allowed to pass through. 

With the piston or other forms of throttle, some of which will be described 
later on, the action is exactly the same, the form of the throttle being the only 
thing which is changed. Some work more easily, others present a finer degree of 


jzzzzzzzz^zzzzzza: 


UJhev lever lo in 
oft position, ^1, the 
throttle closes the 
openino in the pipe 
entireuft alloivin^ 
no ^asto flow 


tj: through it 


t 

Connection to cavbm^etor and 
of vaporized ^as. 


supply 


-The throttle lever and its influence upon the movement of the butterfly valve 
within the inlet pipe. 


movement of the gear. As a result, the gear 
is not entirely in mesh, consequently the 
grinding noise. Go over all rods and levers 
in this group with the cover off the trans¬ 
mission, and correct the length of those 
which are found wrong. 

51. What is the trouble when the gear lever 
moves easily at first hut near the end of the 
motion goes very hard? The teeth of the 
gear which is being shifted have become 
burred up, and scratch against the teeth of 
the gear with which it meshes. Fix this 
promptly, otherwise you may damage the sec¬ 
ond gear so that both will have to be re¬ 
placed with new. 


52. How can this trouble be remedied? Take 
the gear out and file off any projections above 
a jilane surface. Use a fine file, and use it 
carefully. The metal will file away very 
readily. 

53. On some speeds the gears shift easily, 
and on others it is very difficult to move them. 
What is the trouble? The shifter rod may 
have become rusty in its bearings at several 
points, so that when these are moved through 
the bearings, the motion is retarded by the 
rust. 

54. How can this be remedied? Oil the shifter 
rod as much as possible, sliding this through 
the bearing so as to carry the oil with it. 
























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26 


The Operation of the Car 


variation from one extreme to the other, or still other advantages, but the prin¬ 
ciple of each is the same, the movement of the finger to open the throttle makes 
a larger available opening in the inlet passage for the gas to pass through. 


lever is the other one of the two finger levers, placed on or just 
THE SPARK below the steering wheel. This controls the position of the electric 
ADVANCE spark in the cycle of operation of the motor, and thus its speed 
and power output. A movement of the spark-advance lever in 
one direction advances the spark to a better position in the cycle, and thus the 
engine speeds up and gives more power. A corresponding movement in the 


To 


we 




lr> po^ihoT) the 
thivttJe allows a uer^ 
little pas to pass to 
the motor, odIu 
emuph to operate 
it at the oery 
siovuest speed. 



V 

Qsanechon to yoa 



tn positior)4 and sahse^ 
paent ones, the throttle 
allows more pas to pass up 
to the position in which the 
throttle IS in the centre of 
the pipe . The rnotdr I'uns 
faster G faster up to the 
maximum speed, when the 
throttle is wide open. 





opposite 
direction re¬ 
tards it or 
causes it to 
come at a lat¬ 
er and poorer 

th^ position in the 
throttle permits ^ ,, 

more oa<3 to cycle, with the 
pass and the result that the 

Ota hf/her engine gradu- 
speed a 11 y s 1 o w s 

down or gives 
less power. 

The manner 
in which this 
finger lever 
works is very 
similar to that 
of the throt¬ 
tle lever. A 
movement of 
the former 
turns the con- 
t a c t breaker 
on the mag- 
n e t o back¬ 
ward so that 
it comes into 
action or 
“breaks” the 
circuit at an 


Fig. 8A—Later, consecutive positions of the throttle lever and its influence upon the 

valve and the consequent operation of the motor. earlier point 

in the cycle of operation of the engine cylinder. This makes the spark, which 
occurs simultaneously with the breaking of the primary current flow, occur at an 
earlier point—in short, the spark is “advanced.” 


If this makes the rod slide more easily, the 
trouble lies there. Take the shifter rod out, 
clean it thoroughly, then put in a vise and 
sandpaper the rusty part slightly, using a 
very fine paper or emery and lots of oil. 
After replacing, be sure to oil all over, and 
thereafter lubricate very frequently. 

55. The gear case seems noisy at all speeds. 
What is the trouble? Probably not enough 
oil in the case. The lubricant deadens^ a 
great part of the necessary gearing noise. Tf 
the oil is too low in the case, these will be 
heard plainly all the time. 


56. What is the remedy? Pour into the case a 
couple of quarts of the lubricant specified 
for this transmission, then run the engine 
and see if less noise is noticed. If so, con¬ 
tinue adding lubricant until you have as 
much in the case as it will hold without over¬ 
flowing or churning out when the gears are 
running. This is a wasteful method; do not 
use it unless the noise is unbearable. Ordi¬ 
narily, the case should be filled only to the 
point where the bottom row of gears all dip 
into it slightly. 






















^8 


The Operation of the Car 


There are many gradual steps in this action, the last ones being almost unbe¬ 
lievable in their action. Normally, the spark is timed or created at a point in the 
cycle when the crankshaft has turned about 15 degrees down from the upper dead 
center, as shown in Fig. 9. When the piston pin, crank pin and crank shaft 
center lines agree exactly, the engine is said to be on dead center. In each cylin¬ 
der this may occur at two points, when the piston and connecting rod are up and 
when they are at the bottom of their travel. The former is called the upper dead 
center and the latter the lower dead center. After the engine has passed the 
upper center and is turning in its proper direction, the spark is created at a point 
about 15 degrees down. Coming at this point, when the piston is traveling down¬ 
ward, the explosion of gas which results serves to drive it downward faster. 

As the engine runs faster 
and faster, the spark is ad¬ 
vanced or caused to come 
earlier and earlier. This 
means closer and closer to the 
upper dead center, until at 
very high rotative speeds, it 
may be created before the up¬ 
per center is reached or the 
charge exploded while the pis¬ 
ton is traveling upward. You 
would think that this would 
drive it down immediately in 
the opposite direction, but 
such is not the case. The in¬ 
ertia of the moving parts, as 
the flywheel, connecting rods, 
crankshaft and other, is suffl- 
cient to carry it over the dead 
center point before the down¬ 
ward force of the explosion 
begins to act. In addition, at 
very high speeds the parts are 
traveling at such a high rate that a considerable angle of travel is necessary for 
even such a very quick, almost instantaneous, action as the explosion of the gas. 
This at such a speed as 1,500 r.p.m., in a motor of 4-inch bore and 5-inch stroke, 
the motor is making 3,000 strokes a minute, or 50 a second. As each of these 
measures 5 inches, the piston is traveling 250 inches a second. One rotation takes 
i/i,500th part of a minute, or i/25th of a second. Ten degrees would be i/36th 
part of a revolution, and consequently would require i/900th part of a second. 
This is all the time that would be allowed for the spark lag and for the explosion 
to take place, if the spark advance were 10 degrees beyond the upper center. 

Referring back to the two levers, the spark and throttle, these control the 
action of the engine absolutely, granting that the carbureting and ignition systems 



Fig. • 9—The various positions of the spark lever and what 
happens within the cylinder at each. 


57A. Wlien the brakes heat up very badly? 

If the car is traversing mountain country or 
going down unusually steep hills, or fairly 
steep ones which have a poor road surface, 
the brakes must be used, and they will 
heat up. 

58A. Is there no remedy for this? Pour 
cold water over the brake drums as soon as 
the heating is discovered and it is possible 
to stop with safety. This will cool them 
off quickly, while standing still, as will be 
necessary at t,he time of pouring on the 
water, will help also. 

59A. Is cold water the only remedy? The 

driver should use his engine as a brake as 
much as possible in a case of this sort, since 
It is more or less beneficial to the engine, 
and saves the brakes at the same time. 


60A. Is there any particular advantage in 
the use of the motor as a brake, aside from 
those mentioned above? It is more powerful 
than any hand or foot brake, or combination 
of these, and will hold the car in situations 
in which they will not. 

61A. How should it be used? On ordinary 
hills there is little need for it On those of a 
considerable grade of many turns and some 
length, down which the driver does not dare 
to coast, and on which the service brake will 
not hold the car down to the speed desired, 
the high gear may I'e engaged, the clutch let 
in, and . then the spark shut off. This makes 
the car pump in and compress gas, which is 
doing work. Even with small reduction, as 
in the high gear, this is very effective. 






































30 


The Operation of the Car 


are operating properly. Moreover, if the engine is in a running condition, 
properly lubricated and otherwise right, no other levers or parts effect its running. 

In the extreme off position of either lever, the motor will not operate, be¬ 
cause without a spark the gas cannot be ignited, and without gas there would be 
nothing to ignite. The driver, knowing this, may slow his car down without 
using either clutch or brake, as outlined previously, by reducing the amount of 
gas to the engine and retarding the spark. The use of both together is very 
effective and pulls the motor speed down very rapidly. It is highly important for 
the driver to learn at the outset how to use the spark lever, as with this shut off 
entirely, the engine continues to pump gas in, compress it, and force it out. All 
this takes energy from some other source, so long as there is no spark to create 
an explosion and thus create power within the engine. The result is that the 
engine itself absorbs some of the energy of motion of the car, and thus acts as a 
brake to slow it down. 

This cannot be emphasized 
too strongly, for there are 
times when the other brakes, 
strong and reliable as they 
may be, have not the strength 
and reliability that the motor 
used as a brake has. In moun¬ 
tain work, it very often is the 
case that the lining of the run¬ 
ning brakes will be worn out 
completely before the descent 
is completed, in which case it 
would be necessary for the 
driver to use the emergency. 

This should not be done for 
several reasons, nor is it con¬ 
venient. If the emergency is 
worn out in this manner, the driver is then practically without brakes of any kind 
and cannot descend farther without great danger. Using the brake lightly so as 
to spare it with this danger in mind makes it well-nigh useless. If the brake be 
applied somewhat strongly, there is danger of throwing out the clutch through the 
interconnection of the two, in which case the car will be in a position to coast 
down the grade, regardless of brakes. 

Using the motor from the start—that is, shutting off the spark and letting 
the downward force of the car pump air or air and gas constantly—will keep the 
car speed retarded to a point where the very lightest touch of the running brakes 
will be sufficient to keep it well in hand. This will avert all danger, give the 
driver confidence in his car and himself, and preserve the running brakes through¬ 
out the descent. In addition, the pumping of cool air constantly through the 
engine cylinders will keep the engine from heating, a point which drivers must 
always have in mind in mountain work. 



Position 4 produces spa.r7(j .Position S and subseguent 6,^ etc., pro-' 

connecting rod has dtice a apar^(, before rhe connecting rod 

jusL reached dead centre C reaches dead centre and i^htie the pis- 
piston IS at its highest pos- ton is rising If the f Id wheel weight and 

.ihon, speed of rotation wei^ not consitLerahle 

■ this would cLru/e the piston & crant^- 

shaft bacJ(^in the oppositiue direction. 

Fig. 9A—Later, more advanced position of the spark showing 
how this works without causing the engine to run backward. 


62A. On very steep hills and mountain¬ 
sides? Then the lower gears should be en¬ 
gaged and the same procedure followed. The 
same work is done, but it is multiplied be¬ 
tween engine and wheels by the gear reduc¬ 
tion. In this way it is possible to hold the 
car back with the low gear on the very steep¬ 
est grades which it is possible to travel with 
safety in a motor car. 

63A. On such grades as coming down 
a mountainside., what special precautions 
should he observed? Great care should be 
exercised to keep the speed of the car down, 
before striking the heavy grades. That is, 
instead of waiting to reach the actual grade 
and starting down it before checking the car 
speed, it should he checked as much as pos- 
.“ible before starting down the hill. If tliTs 
be not done, the brakes will have to absorb 


the entire energy of the speed of the car, in 
addition to holding it back against the force 
of gravity acting on it. Cases have been 
known in which adequate brakes and large¬ 
sized engines failed to hold a car going down 
a mountain grade because the motorist did 
not follow this simple rule, and started down 
the steep hills at a fast pace. Even the com¬ 
bination of brakes and engine was not suffi¬ 
cient to stop it when once it got rolling rap¬ 
idly down the mountainside. 

64A. When clutch is thrown out, the gear 
shaft continues to rotate? This indicates 
what is known as “spinning,” the clutch shaft 
continuing to rotate after the clutch has 
been thrown out, so that theoretically it 
should stop. To the novice, this condition is 
peculiarly annoying. 









































The Operation of the Car 




On the level, as well, the engine is useful, and serves as a powerful air brake 
for stopping the car when a sudden danger is manifest. The action of the fingers 
in shutting off the spark or both spark and throttle is so quick and the response 
so rapid to this tremendous load which has been suddenly substituted for the 
previous pulling power that any driver who has ever tried it will never discon¬ 
tinue the practice. The fingers can make this movement of reducing the spark to 
the zero point so quickly that no other movement which might be made toward 
the other brakes can compare with it in point of time used. 


or signalling device is used for giving notice to others of the ap- 
THE HORN proach of the car. If this be not done, the law holds that the 
driver is liable for all damages and injuries sustained. For these 
reasons, it is highly important that the novice learn the location of the horn, its 
method of operation, and gradually form the habit of reaching for this as soon 
as he approaches any kind of crossing or other vehicle. In a short time, he will 
get in the habit of doing this involuntarily, and thus it will not detract from his 
attention to the control of the car. 

In general, there are two types of horns in use, and as their operation is 
radically different, it is important to mention both. The electric horn is coming 
into very general use. This is operated by means of a push button located on 
the steering wheel, on the outside of the driver’s seat, or in any other convenient 
position. The current is furnished by means of a storage battery, carried in any 
convenient place. The current used is exceedingly small, so that battery exhaus¬ 
tion needs almost no consideration. The position of the push button makes the 
operation of this form so simple that it has no competition in this respect. 

With the bulb horn on the other hand, or any mechanical form which’requires 
physical force to operate in the form of turning a crank, pressing a pedal or 
button down several times or squeezing a rubber bulb, the position of the operat¬ 
ing part is a most important item, for it must be so placed as not to require any 
extended movement, necessitate much reaching or other exertion, nor call for any 
thought, since the driver usually will be spending all his thought on other mat¬ 
ters. Thus, with a bulb horn, if the bulb be set too low or too far from the driver, 
he will have trouble whenever he must operate it. If a condition arises in which 
the operation of the horn, with its accompanying reaching or stretching, necessi¬ 
tates neglect or the overlooking of something more important, a serious accident 
may result. 

A driver should be fair with his horn, and not sound it upon every possible 
occasion. There are many persons who are timid about a machine moving as 
swiftly as does' the modern automobile, and these jump whenever a horn is 
sounded. In such a case, the driver is almost justified in not blowing or sounding 
a warning signal, as this would cause more trouble than the lack of it. Many 
times a skittish horse or other animal will be so terrified at the sound of a horn 
as to become unmanageable or to run away. Here again is a case in which th^ 
driver should use his best judgment, conditions often bringing about a situation 
in which it is not well to use the horn too freely, if at all. 


65A. What causes it? For one thing-, thO 
design may be bad—that is, the clutch may 
have been designed with too much metal 
around the outside, so that it has consider¬ 
able flywheel effect. Another possibility lies 
in the disengagement being less complete 
than the driver thinks—that is, throwing the 
clutch pedal all the way out may not throw 
the clutch itself all the way out, but leave it 
in partial engagement so that it continues to 
run a little bit. A third possibility lies in 
the condition of the clutch leather or lining. 
This may have such a surface that when the 
pedal is thrown out, while the clutch is dis¬ 
engaged, a portion of its surface is enough 
higher to remain in contact and thus give a 
partial rotation now and then. 

66A. Ho-w can these he remedied? The 
first can be fixed by taking the clutch out 


and having a machinist take off as much 
metal at the inside of the outer rim as is 
reasonable and safe. This should be done 
with great care in order not to destroy the 
balance of the unit. The second trouble can 
be remedied by read.iusting so that the same 
movement of the pedal moves the clutch out 
farther. The third trouble calls for thor¬ 
ough inspection of the clutch leather or 
lining. If found in bad shape, the remedy 
may be a new lining. If in good shane, a 
coarse file may help the snot or spots which 
have been giving the trouble. 

67A. The clutch eug'ag'es all right, hut acts 
stiff and harsh? This trouble is a common 
one, and is due to a lack of oil in the leather 
of the lining. Neatsfoot oil is the only kind 
which should be used. 






! 





< 4 * 



34 


The Operation of the Car 


On the other hand, every driver should give sufficient warning of his pres¬ 
ence as to render the use of the highway, either as a thoroughfare or at crossings, 
safe to all concerned. The point which is most often raised against the modern 
silent machine in cases of accident is that automobiles are not so quiet that unless 
a signal of some sort be sounded by the driver pedestrians will not know of its 
approach until they see it accidentally or otherwise. 


is done by moving the speed lever at the driver’s side. This may 
CHANCING be the inner or outer lever, but usually is the inner, nearer one. 
SPEEDS It has a double motion—forward and back, and from side to side. 

The lever works in a quadrant or slotted plate, its position therein 
indicating the speed which is engaged. Thus the usual three-speed device has a 
four-slot quadrant—that is, two slots in front, one on each side, and two in the 
back, one on either side. These are for the reverse or backward speed, the low 
or third speed, the intermediate or middle speed, and the first or high speed, q 
transmission being named according to its number of forward speeds. 

One peculiarity of the gasoline engine is that it cannot start under a load, but 
must be started first, allowed to run a short time, and then the load gradually 
applied. For this reason, an automobile engine must be started, allowed to get 
up speed, then the light load or slowest speed applied, after which the driver may 
proceed to use in order the higher speeds as he desires, going from low to second, 
to first or highest speed. 

In this he must remember that the engine is running constantly and that the 
gears in the transmission or gear box are engaged or disengaged by sliding the 
teeth of one into contact with another. Doing this while either or both were 
rotating would result in grinding off or breaking off the teeth of both and thus 
rendering them useless. With the gear box out of commission, the car would be 
useless also. 

For this reason, the engine or source of power must be disconnected from 
the gears whenever a change is to be made. This is done by throwing out the 
clutch, through the medium of the clutch pedal, as explained previously. When 
the engine has been disconnected for a short while, the gears will slow down and 
almost stop rotating. At this moment, the other gear, which is to be engaged 
with the moving member, is quickly and dexterously jerked into place by means 
of a very rapid movement of the hand lever operating the gear changes. 

After this movement of the hand has been perfected, the driver will be able 
to move the handle over and forward or back, as the case may be, simultaneously 
and as quickly as possible. Some drivers become so skillful at this that one never 
notices the change of speed of the car or hears any noise. As soon as the proper 
gear is engaged, the clutch pedal is allowed to rise slowly, so that the clutch will 
take hold slowly and thus gently. If the foot be removed at once, the spring will 
jerk it into place, the engine will grab hold of the gears, and the car will be 
jerked along for some distance. By allowing it to take hold gradually, the car is 
picked up without any of that irregular movement. 


68A. How is this applied? Throw the 
clutch out as far as possible, then pour the 
oil onto the projecting edge of the leather. 
If possible, block the pedal in the extreme 
position, then apply the oil with one hand 
and rotate the clutch with the other. In this 
way it will be distributed around the entire 
circumference, and through use will cover 
the whole surface of the leather. 

69A. When the clutch slips out occasion^ 
ally? The trouble is the spring is too weak, 
and should be tightened up, or, if tight, 
should be replaced with a new one. Gener¬ 
ally, there is a locking mechanism to be con¬ 
tended with, but this is easily backed off, 
then the adjustment made, and the lock put 
on again. 

70A. Suppose a clutch, when thrown out, 
does not stop operating? There may be a 
stop on it which is wrongly adjusted and 
which prevents it from going all the way 


out, as the movement of the pedal would 
lead the driver to think. 

71A. Is there any remedy for spinning? 

Yes; a stop can be rigged up if the car does 
not have one, this being in substance a small 
and very simple brake which comes into 
operation only when the clutch is thrown 
out. Generally, it consists of a small pad of 
leather, fiber or similar material attached to 
a spring arm in such a way that when the 
clutch is thrown out, some projecting por¬ 
tion of it comes in contact with this, and is 
prevented from rotating by it. 

72A Suppose a clutch throws a good deal 
of oil? There must be a bad leak some¬ 
where, or else the method of lubricating the 
clutch is wrong. A clutch should not throw 
off any, or at least any appreciable amount, 
of lubricant. When it has just been softened 
with Neatsfoot oil, it will throw off quite a 






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36 


The Operation of the Car 


This is a combination movement which is difficult to describe, but fairly easy 
to learn. The throwing.out of the clutch is performed by means of a quick down¬ 
ward thrust of the foot, but letting the clutch back in is just the opposite; it is a 
very slow movement. The idea of doing this so slowly is to allow the clutch to 
engage gradually and thus start the car without shock or jerk. If the clutch be 
slapped in as quickly as it is withdrawn, the engine will grab hold of the car and 
start it with a jerk or series of jerks which may unseat the passengers. At the 

very least, it will be disagree- 
Cek ^ecopd or able to 


Neutral 

Bo^itiov) 


Rgjyer^e- 


Dvivixyo Gear^- 



^ecorjd or ZT^rer- 
W^diate Gear 


□Z cPb^ftVrop} 


all concerned, while 
this method of procedure will 
not do the gears and other 
parts of the vehicle any par¬ 
ticular good. 

The process of shifting 
gears is more or less of an 
intricate one, and every driver 
should learn to shift from any 
speed to any other so well and 
so thoroughly that he could do 
it in the dark if necessary. 
When he knows it as well as 
this, he will be able to make 
the change from one speed to 
another without looking down 
at either lever or quadrant. 
This is the proper way, for 
then he can give all his atten¬ 
tion to the road ahead and 
its dangers while changing 
speeds. 

The whole process of chang¬ 
ing consists, then, of the sud¬ 
den throwing out of the 
clutch, grasping the transmis- 
sion lever, shifting forward, 
to then across or straight for¬ 

ward, and then either forward 
or back, as the case may be, 
according to what the change is from and to. Next the clutch is allowed to engage 
gently. The best results are obtained when the skill of the operator and his dextrous 
manipulation of the lever is such that the change from one gear to another is 
made almost instantaneously. The clutch must be out before the first gear is 
disengaged, but after that a very quick and skillful operator will not require any 
more time for the change than that necessary to let the clutch back in again. 

The reason why the clutch must be disengaged for the change of gears is 
simple. The engine has the car in motion and is furnishing power to continue to 



fVeutraZ Po^ihov) 
(Vo C^overoeiDt 


Tow Gear* 




Fig. 10—Operating the transmission gears. Sketch to show the 
components and their relation when the lever is in Neutral. 


little for a few days, but that is all. Beyond 
such a case, it should not throw any. 

73A. When standing' on the g'arag'e floor, 
the transmission leaks lubricant, making’ 
quite a puddle on the floor in a short time? 

This indicates a bearing which allows the 
lubricant to pass, at the front or rear end. 
and a stuffing box which is not working. 
Either one of these or the case is cracked 
somewhere sufficiently to allow the stuff to 
pass through. Look into this matter, as the 
matter may be no more than the need of a 
new felt washer on one of the stuffing boxes. 
On the other hand, a cracked transmission 
case means a makeshift patch or a new case. 
Either of the latter is quite serious. Simi¬ 
larly, the leaking lubricant may not do a 
great deal of harm to the garage or other 


floors, but it is a dead loss, and soon will 
empty the case entirely when the bearings 
and gears will not have any. This latter is 
a serious condition, particularly if it hap¬ 
pens or is brought about out on the road 
when no fresh supply of oil or grease is 
handy or available. 

74A. Suppose the g'asollne pipe leaks 
slightly, enough to show a pool of fuel, when 
it has stood for half an hour? This is more 
serious than a lubricant leak, as the leaking 
fuel might be the means of setting the car 
on fire. It may be that the strainer has be¬ 
come filled with sediment and needs empty¬ 
ing. There should be a cock in the line 
above this, and close to the tank. Shut this 
off, and take out the strainer to see if it 
needs to be cleaned out. 















































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38 


The Operation of the Car 


drive it. If this power were not disconnected, during the shifting process there 
would be a brief space of time in which the drive would be carried by a very small 
portion of the surface of two gears—too little, in fact, to carry it—and both would 
be stripped. A second reason has to do with the progress of the car and the 
rotative speed of the gears. Generally speaking, the gear which the driver is 
about to disengage and the one which he is about to put into mesh are rotating 
at different rates, one of the former being driven by the engine, possibly direct 

so that it is turning^ at the Opera^n^o L.qvq,t' ix) 

maximum rate, while the Lotv Pc^ihoT) 

other is being driven, if at 
all, by the car and at car 
speed. The latter will al¬ 
ways be less than the for¬ 
mer, and it would be un¬ 
wise to attempt to mesh or 
engage two gears rotating 
at widely different rates, 
particularly if much power 
is behind either one. Throw¬ 
ing the clutch out leaves 
one gear, the shifter, turn¬ 
ing idly, and it will slow 
down very rapidly to no ro¬ 
tation at all. 

Before this happens, the 
driver should have meshed 
it with the one intended; 
in fact, the best drivers 
would pause for such a 
fractional part of a second 
as is required to bring the 
higher speed of the shifter 
down to the slower rate of 
the other, and no longer. 

That is, he will make the 
change at the exact instant 
when the two gears are 
turning at precisely the same speeds. 

Many a man knows how to handle his car and shift gears perfectly, long 
before he knows just what happens inside the gear box. Yet this is a very simple 
matter to explain. In Fig. lo the gear shifting lever is indicated and the position 
of the gear which it brings about. The following sketches. Figs, ii, 12, 13 and 14, 
bring out what happens when the gear shift lever is moved. First of all, it moves 
in an H-shaped quadrant or sector, the position of the lever in this indicating the 
speed which is engaged—that is, all except the cross bar—position there meaning 
the neutral position in which no gears are engaged. 



'I brouQt)t iioto rryB^h 
n E.r)^i7)e driven 
df Sear WQici) taro3 
Gear C On Driven Gear/ 

Cr^haH L to rear axle 
S ^rr)d.Uer t})avC re- 
dacirs t})e ; h 

jmaUer t>)ar) I, a^airy 
' reduczvy dpee-d 


11—Position of the operating parts of the transmission 
when the lever is in the low gear position. 


75A. Suppose a case as above, and the 
strainer Is found to he clean and not clog’g'ed 

up? Then there may be a slight crack in 
the gasoline pipe leading down from the tank. 
If this line is badly bent anywhere or twisted 
to a considerable degree, look it over care¬ 
fully at these points. Aside from the dan¬ 
ger of fire, the motorist does not care to be 
losing fuel all the time, the small leak might 
burst open on the road somewhere and leave 
him stranded 10 miles from everywhere, with 
no fuel available. 

76A. What makes the car springs squeak? 

Generally rust between the leaves. This can 
be remedied by prying them apart and in¬ 
serting a thin lubricant made up of oil and 
graphite. Some motorists use a hammer and 
screwdriver or chisel for opening the leaves, 


but this is not necessary, as there are several 
tools now on the market for doing this work. 
The car should be jacked up above the 
springs, so as to take all weight off of them. 
Otherwise, prying them apart is a difficult 
job, and is liable to end in breaking the ends 
off a number of the spring leaves. 

77A. In general, what causes a squeak? 
Except in a few cases, where wood rubs on 
wood or metal, or is itself twisted by the 
movements of the car on rough surfaces, 
squeaks are caused by a lack of lubricant. 
If a metal surface rubs over, touches or 
works upon another hard surface, whether 
wood, hard fiber or other metal continuously, 
a squeak is likely to result every time the 
one is moved forcibly across the other. If 
the driver hears a squeak and wants to cure 





























40 


The Operation of the Car 



Starting with this neutral position, as indicated by Fig. lo, the gear lever 
will be shifted successively through low, second, high and reverse speeds, as 
shown in the other figures. In each case, it will be remembered that the clutch 
must be considered and operated, although for the sake of clearness nothing will 
be said about this. In a transmission of the kind indicated, the gears are arranged 
so that within the transmission case there are two sets of shifters—one for the 

L 6 i/erin>cor)d reverse speeds the 

other for second and high 
speeds. On the quadrant 
there are two members to 
which the shifting members 
are fixed by the simple act of 
moving the lever into the 
plane of the outer opening or 
slot in the quadrant and the 
plane of the inner slot. Pick¬ 
ing up these members picks up 
one or the other of the shift¬ 
ing groups inside the gearcase. 
according to the movement of 
the gear lever across the 
quadrant. This sliding-across 
movement, then, is a definite 
part of the act of shifting 
gears and constitutes the mid¬ 
dle part of a change of speed. 

In addition, there is the 
movement of pushing the lever 
forward or pulling it back, 
which slides a gear within the 
transmission case in the oppo¬ 
site direction. This action 
constitutes the first and last 
parts of a gear shift. Thus, 
consider Figs. lo and ii, neu¬ 
tral and low speed. From the 
former to the latter, the first 
act is the sliding across the quadrant of the lever which picks up the low and 
reverse group of gears inside the case. Then pulling the lever back as far as it 
will go pushes the gear in the case as far forward as it will go, in which position 
it meshes up with another to produce low speed. This means that the driving 
member is much smaller than the driven, so that it must turn several times before 
a complete turn of the latter results. 

Now compare Fig. ii, which shows the low speed engaged, with Fig. 12, 
showing the second or intermediate speed. To make this change, the lever must 
be pushed forward to the crossbar of the quadrant, and then slid across to the 



Gear^en^fled wit]) 
giearj). driven 

X) turr)o £,reuoZuip^ j])Q.ft 
L. fn crqs^iioa tloeF 
OtiCidravt from oat'dide 
to inside, the ^ear X Z3, 
brought bacK, to -nezi-: 
tretl ar)d left there, 
ppeecX reduced but 
as TOLLCoae tormerlu 
^ £ Crf) about the 


Fig. 12—Relative position of the change gear parts when the 
operating lever is in the second speed or intermediate location. 


it, he should start out with the oil can look¬ 
ing for it. Many body squeaks are caused 
by insufficient or inadequate fastenings, so 
that a few more nails, screws or bolts judi¬ 
ciously applied will remedy the noise, 

78A. In steering around- a cuirve what is 
the proper way to turn the wheel? Turn it 
gradually so that the car comes around in 
a series of gradual turns, and not jerk it 
around with one big sweep. The latter may 
be spectacular, but it is hard on the tires 
and especially hard on the steering gear. 

79A. Is it advisable to steer with one 
hand? Not for the novice. It may be all 


right for the expert, but even he should 
use both hands whenever the country or 
the roads present an element of danger, as 
in mountain climbing or descending, pass¬ 
ing teams, other vehicles or pedestrians. 

80A. In case of breakage of any kind in 
the steering gear, what should the driver 
do first? Shut off the power as quickly as 
possible, then apply all brakes immediately. 
The idea is to bring the car to a stop as 
quickly as possible, regardless of results 
to the car itself. That is stopping quickly 
at such a time is more important than wear¬ 
ing out the brake lining, wearing some rub- 




















































! 


42 


The Operation of the Car 


L&uer 



inside. Doing this throws the low-speed gear out of engagement, and the sliding 
movement disconnects the lever from that group of gears. Sliding clear across 
to the inside connects with the other group, which will give second and high 
speeds. Then pushing the lever forward as far as it will go shoves this shifting 
gear as far backward as it can travel within the gearcase and safely into mesh 
with the second-speed gear. 

Comparing this with Fig. 

13, high speed, it will be 
noted that as the lever is 
connected to the shifting 
gears which produce high, 
it is only necessary to pull 
the lever backward to the 
extreme rear end of the 
slot, when the high-speed 
gear will be engaged. The 
first movement pulls the 
second gear out of mesh, 
the middle portion of the 
action brings the two gears 
up close to one another, 
while the final shove en¬ 
gages them. Attention is 
called to the fact that this 
gearbox has the direct drive 
on high gear, the two shafts 
in the transmission being 
connected together by 
means of jaw clutches 
when this is engaged, so 
that the drive is direct 
through from the engine to 
the rear axle, the only re¬ 
duction in speed being in 
the bevel gears at the dif¬ 
ferential. This eliminates 
all the small losses inciden¬ 
tal to the use of two pairs 
of gears, as in each of the 
other cases, and makes this not alone the combination which produces the greatest 
speed but also that one which gives the maximum efficiency and economy. 

Referring to Fig. 14, and comparing it with Fig. 13, this combination would 
be a direct shift from high speed to reverse. This is one which would never be 
met with in practice, as such a shift would be very likely to smash something, the 
sudden strain of the shift from high speed in the forward direction to the lowest 
rate in the opposite direction being too much for gears and other parts to with- 



£-er)oa(3ed wit}) 
do^ oi) 5- direct 

drive, firoine driujT^rf 
L tfjrouQt) t})Q 
^6arj)^ G-£, ^1)1 ct) are, 
loo'hS'd to^&tt)Qr'^bQ-~ 
coTDiD^ or)©. (Vo reduc- 
tioz) o f ermine, dpe-ed. 

r 


Fig, 13—What happens within the gear case when the lever is 
thrown into the high speed position. 


ber off the tires, or any such minor mat¬ 
ter. 

81A. In case of a puncture or "blowout, 
how should the driver proceed? Throw out 
the clutch and let the car come to a stand¬ 
still as it will, unless it manifests a ten¬ 
dency to keep right on running for some 
time, as would be the case of a long, gentle 
grade. 

82A. What is the idea of not applying the 
"brakes and stopping quickly? When a blow¬ 
out or puncture occurs, and the brakes are 
slapped on as quickly and as strongly as 


the tires are not in any condition to grip 
the ground and thus stop the car. Persis¬ 
tent use of the brakes under such circum¬ 
stances may ruin a tire, which otherwise 
had but a small or comparatively small hole 
in it, 

83A. In the case of a tendency to keep 
on running, why is it advisable to brake the 
car gently to bring it to a stop? The tire 

being deflated the weight of the car is being 
borne on the delicate inner tube or pure 
rubber. This can not be continued for any 
distance without cutting it to pieces. At 




























































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44 


The Operation of the Car 





stand. It is shown here, however, more for the purpose of indicating how the 
various changes are made and what actually happens when this or that lever is 
moved than as indicating good practice. First the lever is moved forward to the 
cross slot, thus disengaging high speed, then it is slid across, which drops the 
high and second-speed member, slid clear to the outside, which picks up the low 

and reverse shifter, then push- 

Ceuer m fieuBWe" H forward as far as it will 

go, which moves the shitter as 
far toward the rear as it will 
go, and thus meshes with the 
reverse gear. 

Noting the letters on the va¬ 
rious parts, gear I is now in 
mesh with K, which is on a 
short shaft beneath the other 
two. This carries at its for¬ 
ward end the gear J, which is 
constantly in mesh with gear 
H, and as a result is driven by 
it continuously. Thus the drive 
is from the engine shaft A to 
the gear B, this turns C, and 
thus the gears on the second¬ 
ary shaft. One of these is H, 
which meshes with and turns) 
/, this in turn operating K. 
When / is meshed with the lat¬ 
ter, the train is complete, and 
the shaft to the rear axle L is 
operated by the engine power, 
but in a reverse direction. The 
latter is brought about by the 
use of three trains of gears, 
as compared with two in each 
of the other cases. These are: 
B-D direct through the jaw 
clutches F and G for high, B-C 
and D-E for second, B-C and 
H-I for low, and B-C, H-J 

14 —Location of the parts and relative movement when the and K-I fOT rCVCrSC. If the 
lever is put into the reverse gear notch. i i j: ii j 

arrows have been followed 
through in each of the five figures, these various combinations will be seen as even 
more simple than telling about them is. 

As every higher speed means a heavier load for the engine, and every lower 
speed a lighter load (except when in deep sand or climbing a hill), the operator 


QrQQ.T [ tiQQheer} 

meshed with Qeai'' IE. 
EvgUDQ drives a which 
turns <6; roto.tes hi which 
noe&hes witbd J 
t-ui'n together Crthe latter 
rotates L which turns the 
^baft to the* rear axle. 

[Vote that L turns 
T.r> the opposite di- 
)rectxon toti. Blso 
note aeai- T'&dnctioT.') 
at 

■noal^-nQ this the 
slowest speed of 
all ‘ 



possible, a violent skid often occurs. In 
addition, from the nature of the accident, 
most, a puncture means a patch; a blow¬ 
out, unless very bad, a large patch, while 
running so as to ruin the tube means a new 
one. The difference between a personally 
applied small patch, a vulcanized large one 
at 50 cents, and a new tube at from $7 to 
$10 is considerable and worthy of a little 
thought. 

84A. In steering, the wheel turns several 
inches in either direction before the wheels 
begin to move. This is termed lost motion, 
and is caused by the key which holds the 


hand wheel to the steering post becoming 
worn. Even the smallest fraction of an inch 
of wear on this key will allow several inches 
movement of the wheel. 

85A. How is this remedied? By taking 
off the wheel and taking out the key. If 
the keyway or keyseat in the lyheel is still 
straight and true, the trouble can be reme¬ 
died by fitting and driving in a new key. 
If the wheel is worn, however, it means 
that this must be recut to a slightly larger 
size, and then a new key of the larger 
size fitted and driven in. 














































46 


The Operation of the Car 


should open the throttle and advance the spark lever just before he makes the 
change to a higher speed, or just as quickly as it is completed, and just the oppo¬ 
site with a lower speed. In general, it is better to speed the engine up before¬ 
hand, but some skillful drivers prefer to make the gear shift first and then change 
the engine speed immediately after. If this be not done, the extra load in one 
case will cause the motor to slow down and stop, or speed up and race in the 
other. Neither one is desirable nor good driving. 

The change of engine speed (by means of the spark and throttle) should not 
be made too late—that is, too long after the gear change, as then the tendency is 
to kill the engine, which is another way of saying make it stop. Thus if a change 
is made to a higher gear and the engine begins to labor and slow down very 
markedly before the driver begins to give it more gas and greater spark advance, 
the sudden addition of a big amount of both these when the engine is dying down 
will but make it stop quicker. 




CHAPTER 11. 


The Auxiliary Control Group. 

of the operating system are those additional parts which con- 
THE AUXIL" tribute to the ease of handling a car but are not to be found on 
lARIES all cars, or cannot be handled until the driver has acquired a 

certain amount of skill in operating his car. These are eight in 
number, as follows: 

1. The accelerator or foot throttle. 

2. Needle or auxiliary air variator on the dash. 

3. Muffler cut-out button. 

4. Lubrication telltale. 

5. Signs of motor heating. 

6. Unnecessary noise. 

7. Lack of regular operation. 

8. Starting and the attendant operations. 

or foot throttle, as its name indicates, is a small button some- 
THE ACCEL- where on the inclined footboard of the driver’s part of the car, 
ERATOR arranged to be operated by a slight movement of the toe, usually 

of the right foot. It opens the throttle of the carburetor more 
quickly than the finger lever on the steering wheel, and thus it has the double 
function of leaving the hands free for something else and of working the throttle 
variation, especially opening it, more quickly than is possible with the hand lever. 
Not all cars have it, nor do all drivers who have it utilize it. In such a case as 
this, it is very useful: Suppose a car stopped at a railroad crossing, which has 
just cleared so that the car may pass, when another train is seen in the distance. 
The throttle is kicked open, and the car shot across the tracks to avoid the second 
delay. 

This accelerator not alone operates more quickly than the hand throttle, but 
it has the prime advantage—which is of equal or greater weight—that it may be 
operated by a body member which is not required for some other operation of 
equal or greater importance at the same time. Thus consider again the case just 
cited: The car has been stopped and presumably the emergency brake applied. 
Starting up again quickly, the left hand is needed on the steering wheel for 
guiding the forward motion of the car across the tracks and may not be used for 


Automobile Troubles and How to Remedy Them 


57. When driving' on the accelerator—that 
is, with the foot—the car alternately runs too 
fast and then too slow, what is the cause? 

The driver has not yet learned to use the 
accelerator pedal properly. He depresses it 
too much at the outset, causing the car to 
run too fast, then he forgets to keep his foot 
pressed down on it, and the car loses speed 
because it is not getting enough gas. 

58. What is the remedy for this? Take the 
time to practice holding the foot in one po¬ 
sition without varying by the slightest frac¬ 
tion of an inch for hours at a time. If you 
cannot master this, nail a piece of board to 
the footboard in such a way that it will 
allow of holding the throttle open as much 


motor at once; any motor will knock if asked 
to change from 10 to 45 mph in as short a 
as is wanted at usual speed. Then as soon 
as the car is started, press down on the foot 
until it touches the board. Hold it there. 
This holds the accelerator open just that 
much, and the leg muscles are becoming ac¬ 
customed to holding that position for a yery 
long time. As soon as this has been per¬ 
fected, take away the extra board and try 
doing the same thing without it. 

59;. When approaching* a hill at a slow speed 
—say, 10 mph—and then pressing* down on the 
accelerator in order to climb the hill, the car 
picks up speed rapidly but knocks badly. The 
trouble is that too much gas was fed to the 






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50 


The Auxiliary Control Group 


anything else. Similarly, the right is operating the brake and gear levers so that 
it may not be used for anything else. It is important, however, that the car reach 
its maximum speed as quickly as possible. 

Without the accelerator, this would be a slow process; the brake would be 
released first, then the motor speeded up a little and the car started forward. 
Next the shift would be made to second speed and the hand would have to go 
back to the steering wheel a second time in order to speed the engine up a little 
more. When this has been done and the motor has attained the higher speedy 
the hand must go back to the lever at the side for another change to high gear. 
Following that, it would go back to the wheel again for the final adjustment of 



spark and throttle lev¬ 
ers. With the throt¬ 
tle, all of the engine 
speeding operations 
would be done by the 
toe of the right foot, 
which otherwise is do¬ 
ing nothing, and si¬ 
multaneously with the £^orTT^ 
hand operations on 
brake and gear levers. 

In short, not only 
would the constant 
moving of the hand 
from lever to spark 
and throttle and back 
again be avoided, but 
by doing it with the 
foot at the same time, 
a considerable number 

of seconds will have r- . r , , . , 

1 1 . -Tig- 15—1 wo forms of accelerator pedals, 

been saved at a time showing (above) that which is moved side- 

"wbf'tl i^'VP'n Jirp ways by the top and (below) that which is ■flriic cfoTi'nincr ib nt* nl 

wrien even seconas are fjepressed like a dutch pedal. Both are Slopping 11, or 01 

valuable. from weii-known cars. pushing a lever back- 

The operations just ward when it should 

have been pushed forward, and thus obtaining reverse instead of low speed, or 

some other equally common mistake. Using the hand throttle only, this is very 

liable to happen, while with the foot throttle it could not; the driver would 

simply move right hand and right toe to correspond one with the other, both 

keeping pace with the progress of the machine. 

The method of controlling the car by m.eans of the foot throttle or accelerator 
exclusively is growing in favor rapidly, due to a number of advantages which it 
has over all other methods of handling the car. By this the car is started in the 
normal way, then the throttle lever (hand) is set so that the motor will just turn 
over enoueh to keep the car in motion—that is, at the point or very close to it 
which marks the lower limit of engine speed at which the car can be moved. 



described have this 
further advantage for 
the accelerator pedal 
that there is at no time 
a chance for the driv¬ 
er to get mixed up and 
do the wrong thing, 
thus mixing up mat¬ 
ters very badly. In 
the case cited above, 
the constant move¬ 
ment from throttle to 
spark to hand lever, 
back to throttle to 
spark and to hand 
lever again, is very li¬ 
able to mix an inex¬ 
perienced driver to the 
extent of pulling the 
throttle open too wide 
or of giving the motor 
too much spark and 


time as a few seconds. Try starting the 
downward pressure a distance away from the 
hill, and gradually increasing it until the full 
opening is obtained a short distance up the 
hill. 

60. In what other way may a hill he taken? 

Many drivers like to show the power of their 
motor by not accele’^ating until the hill has 
been reached, when they accelerate gradually 
all the way up it, so that at the top they 
are going faster than at the bottom or at 
any time on the hill. This requires a great 
deal of excess power, and considerable skill 
in handling the motor, as well as a knowl¬ 
edge of the motor’s ability. 

61. In case it is impossible to learn to hold 
the foot steady on the accelerator, is there 


any other way to get the same advantages? 

No; unless the driver can master the foot 
throttle, he must handle his car entirely by 
means of the spark and throttle levers on 
the steering wheel. 

62. In adjusting the carburetor from the 
dashboard, what should the driver try to get? 

The best pulling speed; this will not neces¬ 
sarily be the highest speed, nor will it be 
the lowest by any means. In general, he 
should adjust to the point of highest speed, 
then turn back in the direction which pro¬ 
duces lower speeds about one or two notches. 

63. In making such adjustments, is it ad¬ 
visable to run on the magneto? No; when 
adjusting the carburetor with a dual system 
of ignition, always run on the batteries. 









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52 


The Auxiliary Control Group 


The spark lever (hand) is then set very far advanced, about midway between the 
slowest running position and the maximum amount of advance. 

The driver then operates the car entirely with his foot, which is kept con¬ 
stantly upon the foot accelerator. By a very slight pressure the engine is supplied 
with considerable gas and travels slowly along even on high gear. For more 
speed, more pressure is applied, the amount of foot pressure regulating the car 
speed at all times. For maximum power and speed the accelerator is pressed 
down as far as it will go and held there, which is equivalent to a wide-open 
throttle. 

For em^ergencies, this method is admirable for the removal of the foot, or 
better the simple lifting of the toe brings the vehicle down almost to a standstill, 
while an equally quick movement in the operation jumps it from a few miles an 
hour—say, 8 and lo—to twice or three times that speed in about the length of the 
car or at most twice its length. When a driver is inclined to travel somewhat 
slowly at all times, this method is very economical, as the small opening of the 
hand throttle does not call for much gas, and when a quick movement or speed for 
a short distance is required the foot accelerator supplies the needed extra gas 
only so long as it is required. 

In such a case as hill climbing, the advantage of this method is apparent. The 
car is moving along at a pace satisfactory to its driver with no more gas being 
consumed than is necessary. Approaching a hill, the driver depresses the pedal 
slightly, just enough to carry the car over the summit of the hill, after which he 
removes his foot from the accelerator, and the car automatically drops back into 
the previous slower and economical pace. 

At first it is difficult to learn the light, even touch on this pedal which regular 
operation demands; the beginner will be sure to press upon it too much, giving a 
greater speed than he wants, or else he unconsciously lifts his toe off of it aud 
the car drops down slower and slower, according to the setting of the hand 
throttle, until it almost comes to a standstill. Realizing this, he puts his foot T)n 
it again, but too strongly. The net result of all this is that the car progresses by 
jerks, rapidly while he thinks of the accelerator, then slower and slower as he 
forgets, until the car almost stops, when, thinking of it, a sudden application of 
the toe brings considerable speed, this being repeated over and over again. 

After learning its use, to the point of holding the toe on it with the very 
lightest pressure unvaryingly for hours, the driver is so charmed with the advan¬ 
tageous results that he will never drive in any other manner. The writer has 
talked with a large number of drivers on this subject, and not one of them who 
had ever tried the accelerator method, as outlined above, was willing to drive in 
any other manner. 


from the dashboard may include a change in the auxiliary air 
CARBURETOR opening or an alteration of the setting of the needle valve 
ADJUSTMENT which admits the fuel to the vaporizing chamber. Without 
going into the details of carburetor construction, which will be 
taken up in its proper place later in the book, the general principle of carburetor 


64. Why is this better? At the slower speeds 
necessary in some part of the adjusting 
range, the magneto gives such a very poor 
spark that the normal slow speed is still 
further reduced by this. The battery, how¬ 
ever, always gives a hot spark, no matter 
how fast or slow the engine runs. Conse¬ 
quently, adjusting on battery ignition has 
the advantage of furnishing a quick, hot 
spark while the work is being done. 

65. In general, which is more desirable in a 
dashboard adjustment of the carburetor—the 
needle valve or the auxiliary air? The needle 
valve is the most valuable to the driver when 
he knows how to use it right, but is the most 
dangerous to hand the amateur, as he can 
put the engine out of commission in so short 
a time by misusing it. 


66. Is the use of a dash adjustment for the 
air dangerous? No; it is impossible to do much 
more with it than make the engine run too 
slow or too fast, up to the point in either 
direction at which it will not run at all. 

67. If an amateur driver has overadjusted 
his engine in this manner, how can it be reme¬ 
died? Simply by turning back in the reverse 
direction. If he has been running at very 
high speed, and constantly adjusting to get 
more speed and more, then the remedy is to 
turn back in the opposite direction for a 
considerable distance. Conversely, if he has 
been attempting tO get too slow a speed, and 
has stopped the engine, give it considerable 
of a turn in the opposite direction, sufficient 
at least to allow starting. Then continue 











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54 


The Auxiliary Control Group 


and vaporizer construction is as follows: Fuel flows into a float chamber, the 
float by suitable mechanism maintaining a lever which insures a constant flow at 
the nozzle or needle valve. The float does this automatically, and needs no atten¬ 
tion. The position of the needle valve controls the amount of gasoline which can 
flow through the opening, and thus the amount and character of the gas which 
can be formed. The initial air flow, which picks up and vaporizes the spray of 
fuel is called the primary air, and this is seldom varied. After this has broken 
the fine spray of liquid up into still finer particles and converted these into a gas, 
more air is added to this overrich vapor for the sake of economy and proper 
combustion. 

This is called the auxiliary or secondary air, and is varied from time to 
time. On some cars there is a rod connecting with the latter adjustment which 
is carried up to the dashboard with a little handle there and a quadrant to mark 
and indicate its position. By means of this, the driver is enabled to change the 

quantity of auxiliary air without 



Zl^^er 
OT7 3)a3h 


Cofburetdr 



leaving the seat by simply bending 
over and turning this handle. 

As has been stated, the needle 
valve or needle controls the 
amount of fuel flowing into the va¬ 
porizer and through its size, shape 
and adjustment, the fineness of the 
spray. As the latter more or less 
governs the completeness of the 
vaporization process, and by means 
of this the economy of fuel, and 
indirectly many internal engine 
troubles, it is highly important that 
of ^ be adjusted right. This will vary. 

speed may be varied at will and its general performance with a variation in the fuel with 

improved. character of the air and with 

other items, so on a few cars the carburetor is arranged to have the needle vari¬ 
able up and down, this being accomplished from the dashboard by means of a 
short finger lever and a rod connection. 

Moving the lever turns the needle and thus screws it up or down, according 
to the direction of motion. This, in turn, gives either more or less fuel, delivered 
in a more coarse or finer spray, according to the way in which the carburetor is 
designed and constructed. The utility of this is self-evident when one considers 
mountain touring, for instance. Suppose a car ascends 5,000 feet or approxi¬ 
mately a mile in an hour’s running. Obviously the atmospheric conditions are 
decidedly dififerent at the end of that time than they were at the start. Moreover, 
while this might be compensated for at the auxiliary air opening, as outlined just 
previously, the car will require more power, which means more fuel, during the 
whole climb. By being able to vary the needle, a single change,'or rather a series 
of continuous, very minute changes, could be made which would give perfect 


turning' toward higher speed, until the de¬ 
sired point is reached. 

68. Should an adjustment of this kind he used 
for hoth hig'h and low speed? No; for high 
speed and power only. For low speed, a sep¬ 
arate adjustment on the main air or needle 
valve is desirable. 

69. What is the best carburetor adjustment? 

There is no such thing. Every driver wants 
a different speed or combination of speeds, 
and the adjustment should be such as to pro¬ 
duce this or these. In general, there are 
three settings: One for high speed regard¬ 
less of fuel; one for slow speed, designed to 
give maximum fuel economy, and a compro¬ 
mise between the two, to give a moderate 
rate of travel with a very good economy of 
fuel. 


70. Is there such a thing as automatic car¬ 
buretor adjustment? Yes; two new devices 
just placed on the market will do this work 
automatically. One works on the principle 
of the rise of fluid in a tube, caused by its 
heating. This is utilized to move a rod or 
wire connection which is attached to the 
auxiliary air valve. The end to which the 
heat is applied resembles a thermometer, 
and is placed in the water or exhaust pipes 
as close to the engine as possible. When the 
speed rises, the water will heat up more 
rapidly and attain a higher temperature. 
Similarly with the exhaust. This heating 
will cut off some air in the auxiliary air 
valve and reduce the speed. If the speed 
goes down too low, the water (or exhaust) 
will become quite cool and the device will 



















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56 


The Auxiliary Control Group 


operating conditions during the long climb. With the air adjustment alone, this 
would hardly be possible, as a series of decidedly different adjustments would 
have to be made to insure running alone with no regard for added power, each 
necessitating stopping the car and raising the hood. 

Aside from the lever and rod connections and adjustments for these desirable 
operating conveniences, there is another method by which they may be controlled 
or operated, viz., by Bowden wire. This consists of a double wire, the outer 
being hollow and fixed at both ends, while the inner is the movable portion and is 
attached to the lever at one end and the part to be moved at the other. Pulling the 
lever causes the inner wire to move relative to the outer one or skin, and this 
movement imparts to the part the motion desired. 

It has the advantage over rods and levers of being more simple, of being able 
to turn all kinds of corners or angles, or make any kind of a twist or turn as 
easily as working in a straight line and at no additional cost. In appearance it 
resembles any other wire, and is equally as flexible. For carburetor adjustments 
in particular, it is rapidly coming into favor. In this work, it may be attached to 
any part of the steering wheel or steering column, or to the fixed fore door or 
other convenient part of the driver’s part of the car. 


r^affler 

\^lve 

Oper> 


are operated generally by means of a button in the floor boards of 
MUFFLER the front of the car. In this way, a simple pressure with either the 
CUTOUTS toe or heel of either foot, according to its placing, results in cutting 
out the muffler, so that the engine exhausts 
into the atmosphere. This is used by many adherents of the 
old bulb form of signal as a warning to persons ahead of 
the car’s approach. It may be heard where the weak note 
of the horn cannot, and acts as a notable warning of the 
vehicle’s approach. 

While this was widely used several years ago, it is 
now going out of use very rapidly, with the widening use of 
more strident or raucous horn notes, such as are produced 
by the various electric horns and a few of the manually 
operated forms. 

Originally it was thought that cutting out the muffler 
added a great deal to the power of the engine—that’is, that 
the muffler took a considerable portion of the motor’s out¬ 
put, and by cutting this out a proportionate gain would be 
effected. On motorcycles, the total amount of power was, 
and is, so small that this was worth considering at all times. 

As a consequence of this belief, the great majority of mo¬ 
torcycle riders and many motor-car drivers made them¬ 
selves very obnoxious to other riders and to pedestrians by 
their continuous use of the cutout. 

Of late, however, it has been proven that the power loss in properly designed 
mufflers is very small, but a fraction of what it was supposed to be, so that there 


Normal 


Fig. 17.—One type of 
muffler cutout bottom, 
that operated by the top. 
The other form is de¬ 
pressed like the clutch 
pedal, and is operated by 
the heel of either foot. 


pull the air valve open and speed up the 
motor. Thus, within its range of speed, this 
tends to equalize the motor’s speed at all 
times. The other device is more mechanical, 
and produces similar results. 

71. Is there any connection between the use 
of the accelerator, the spark lever, and the 
dashboard carburetor adjustment? Between 
the two former, yes; but between the two 
latter, no; nor between the first and the last 
beyond setting the carburetor to deliver the 
required speed. When the accelerator is de¬ 
pressed to give high speed, it should not be 
forgotten that this calls for a well-advanced 
spark as well. 

72. What good is a muffler cutout? To give 
notice of the car’s approach under circum¬ 
stances when it is not desirable to use the 
horn or other warning signal. Also to give 


the maximum power on hills, in the hardest 
kind of going, and when trying to attain the 
highest speed on the level. 

73. Under what circumstances would it be 
better to use the cutout than the horn? Gen¬ 
erally speaking, teamsters and horse drivers 
look upon the sounding of a horn as an 
insult to them, where as it is just as easy to 
give them notice of your approach by means 
of the cutout. This is more effective, also, 
for it conveys an impression of speed, that is 
a big car coming very rapidly, which the 
horseman is more likely to heed than he 
would the horn. 

74. Under what other circumstances is the 
cutout used? Many times the driver of car is 
not sure that some other driver, or either 
horse or car, is not cognizant of his pres¬ 
ence, when such knowledge is desirable from 













1 . 




58 


The Auxiliary Control Group 


is less incentive to its use on the score of added power to be gained thereby. A 
further idea is, that moved to action by the abuse of this habit, many cities and 
towns passed laws against the use of the cutout, inflicting a punishment for 
non-observance of the same. This has had the effect of reducing the practice. 

sometimes called sight feeds, from the fact that the amount of 
LUBRICATION oil feeding is in plain sight, are used on a number of cars. 
TELLTALES, These consist of small glass cylinders, connected into the oiling 
system of the engine in such a way as to have the same amount 
of lubricant pass through them as passes to the various parts of the engine and at 

the same time. Thus, the number of drops 
of oil a minute to the various bearings 
is indicated to the driver at all times. As 
each glass indicates an individual lead to 
some bearing, cylinder, or other part of 
the engine, the driver has before him a 
guide to the lubrication of his motor. 

These show whether each and every lead 
has oil flowing through it continuously, 
and how much. If a lead be obstructed or 
broken, this would be indicated at once, 
as nothing would show in that glass. 
Again if too much oil were flowing, this 
would be shown by the over-rapid rate at 
which the drops came in that glass. The 
driver could note which one showed this 
condition and adjust the same so as to se¬ 
cure a slower feed. The use of the sight 
feed, or telltale, then, is not alone a guide- 
to correct and continuous operation of the 
motor through its proper lubrication, but is 
also a source of economy in that waste of 
oil may be reduced to a minimum by its 
proper use. A third point in this connection is that a considerable portion of 
cylinder carbonization and consequent misfiring may be prevented by reducing 
the amount of oil used to a minimum. The telltale on the dash is thus indirectly 
a preventer of repair bills. 



Fig. 18—Lubricator telltale located on the 
dashboard in front of the driver, which serves 
to show him how the engine is being lubri¬ 
cated. This is very important and should not 
be neglected. 


are many and various, each worthy of immediate attention. 
SIGNS OF In general, an engine will heat through certain forms of 

MOTOR HEATING incorrect operation, through a lack of adequate water sup¬ 
ply, through a leak in the cooling system so that the water 
is escaping or has escaped, through continuous running at maximum output, and 
others. The motor should be watched carefully, and at the first sign of serious 
heating, as distinguished from the ordinary warming up due to regular operation, 
some thought should be given to the cause of this trouble and its immediate removal. 


the point of view of safety of all concerned. 
Usually the’horn is sounded to mean that the 
one making the noise wishes to pass, while 
the cutout noise is not taken in the same way 
always. Thus, in a city traffic blockade, a 
driver frequently will open his cutout to let 
other drivers ahead of or alongside of him 
know of his presence. In smaller towns, too, 
where the use of lights is not observed so 
closely as is necessary in a big city, it is 
well to travel along with the cutout opened 
enough to make a noise, but not wide open. 
This gives h, continuous sound, which is a 
guide and a warning to all other drivers and 
vehicles, but one which a driver would not 
care to duplicate with a horn of the electric 
type as consuming too much current, or with 


a hand horn as taking too much time and 
trouble. 

75. Isn’t its use forbidden in some cities? 

Yes, in a good many; but these laws were 
brought about mainly by its overuse. When 
used Sensibly and in combination with a good 
horn, there is little objection to it. 

76. Pressing down on the cutout button 
brings no response. This usually depresses 
one end of a lever, the rising or depression 
of the other end working a valve in the ex¬ 
haust pipe. When no sound results with the 
engine running well, either the lever has be¬ 
come disconnected or the valve has rusted in 
place. If the latter, pouring kerosene on it 
will soon free it, after which its fairly con¬ 
tinuous use will keep it free. 






























60 


The Auxiliary/ Control Group 


Serious overheating leads inevitably to one of two things: Seizing of the 
pistons in the cylinders or of the bearings and ])ins on the one hand, or to con¬ 
tinuous operation under conditions which will bring about a greater amount of 
damage than seizing. One is bad enough, the other is worse; consequently both 
should be avoided. 

Too rich a fuel mixture will cause heating quicker than will too lean a mix¬ 
ture, although the latter has been known to cause this trouble. Naturally, trouble 
with the circulating water is a notable and frequent cause of heating; the ])umj) 
shaft may have sheared off due to some wood or other obstruction in the water; 
the pump may have become so clogged that not enough water can flow through it 
to cool the cylinders properly; the size of the pump may l)e insufficient for the 
size of the motor (although this is very rare nowadays) ; the water jfipes, either 
metal or the hose connections, may be too small, either made with too small an 
interior hole, or a large enough opening may have become constricted in making 
the connection; if a fan be used with a system which is so scantily designed as to 
require its constant use, the fan belt may have become loose or may have ])arted, 
as well as many other things which contribute directly or indirectly to cylinder 
heating. 

The most noteworthy sign of an overheated engine is steaming at the radiator 
filling cap, although an unusual amount of heat around the bonnet and front of 
the car will be noticed quickly. A device has been placed on the market recently 
which is constructed so as to attach to the radiator cap. In that j^osition, a bright- 
colored fluid indicates in a more or less rough manner the temperature of the 
water within. Since the temperature of the cooling water is a certain guide to 
correct or incorrect heating, this gives a close check upon this point and one which 
is apparent at a glance. __ 

is somewhat of a guide in the correct operation of the car, for 
UNNECES" the modern machine is more or less noiseless and is becoming 
SARY NOISE more and more (juiet each year with each new design, in fact? 

Excepting those very old cars which date back to the ])eriod 
when noise was accepted generally as a more or less necessary evil, and those later 
cars which have had considerable neglect and abuse, noise is unnecessary and 
avoidable; continuous noise anywhere on the car means that something is wrong 
and should have attention before driving the machine much farther. 

There are and always will be the small and unimportant noises, like the faint 
squeak when a glued wood joint is strained, the faint singing brought out when a 
very thin sheet-metal part is made to vibrate considerably, and other similar ones. 
These the novice should learn as quickly as possible, as well as the steady purr of 
his engine when firing properly and continuously, and the regular hum of well-cut 
gears meshing properly. Knowing these, the operator can detect any other noises 
at once and be in a position to say to himself: “What’s the matter now? I hear 
a noise in the rear axle” (or wherever it may be). 

A very common source of noise, and one which just goes to prove the state¬ 
ment previously made, is that emanating from the valve lifts, push rods, or valve 


77. Is there any device for indicating the 
heating of the motor? Yes, a little device 
placed on the market in 1913 screws into the 
radiator cap and indicates the temperature of 
the water therein, much as a thermometer 
would. 

78. If you were using such a device, and it 
indicated that the water was too hot, what 
would you do? Stop at the very first oppor¬ 
tunity and put more water, and cold water, 
into the system. Usually heating is a sign 
that the water has been allowed to get too 
low, as modern cooling systems are more 
than adequate. 

79. In a case of this sort, are there any pre¬ 
cautions to he observed? In taking off the 
filler cap, be careful not to loosen the final 
turn of the threads necessary to free it, with 
the hands on it. Otherwise, if the water in¬ 


side is at or above the boiling point, there 
will be steam and some pressure in the radi¬ 
ator. When the cap is loosened, the pres¬ 
sure will blow it off, and the steam will burn 
the hands and face. 

80. How can this be avoided? T^oosen the cap 
down to the last turn. Then take a long- 
handled pair of pliers, wrap the hands hold¬ 
ing them with a thick cloth, and finish un¬ 
screwing and removing it. Be careful, how¬ 
ever, to lift it off very quickly. 

81. When the filler has been removed, sup¬ 
pose no pail is available. In a case of this sort, 
use a cap or hat, or take a section of old 
inner tube, and tie the end up so as to make 
a kind of long trough. This will hold a 
great deal. A big grease gun is good, if 
clean. Sometimes a can holding oil or grease 
can be emptied, then wiped as clean as pos- 







62 


The Auxiliary Control Group 


tappets as they are variously called; namely, the parts which are moved upward 
1 y the cams on the camshaft, and in turn lift the valves so that the carbureted gas 
may enter or the burned gases leave the cylinder. As shown in Fig. 15, there is 
too much space between the tappet and the bottom of the valve stem, due to wear, 
a lack of adjustment, incorrect proportions in the first place, or other causes. 

At every turn of the shaft, the tappet is lifted by the cam more or less 
quickly. Normally, it would rise but a very short distance before meeting the 
tappet, which would then rise with it. In the condition shown, it will rise the 
entire distance of the space between the two parts, and at that point will be mov¬ 
ing much more rapidly than at the beginning of its travel. The result is that in¬ 
stead of picking up the valve stem quietly and gradually, it is slammed up against 
it with considerable force. This regularly repeated blow cannot help but make a 
great deal of noise, in addition to which it wears both parts much more rapidly 
than there is any need for doing. 

It is obvious, also, that the 
valve does not lift as much as 
the tappet by just the amount 
of clearance between the two 
—that is, it has a smaller lift 
by this amount. This means 
that the cylinders are not get¬ 
ting as much gas as they could 
and should by the amount 
which this cuts off of the valve 
opening, while at the time of 
exhausting the burned gases 
are not as thoroughly ex¬ 
pelled by just the same 
amount. 

In the instance cited then, 
the poorly adjusted valve tap¬ 
pet causes not alone unnecessary noise, but it also contributes to lack of power 
through smaller charges and poorer exhausting, and, furthermore, it brings about 
more rapid wear of the parts. 

There is the case, however, of the old car which is so far gone as not to 
warrant any changes which cost much money or the old form which, while not as 
far gone as this, is still so designed and constructed as not to warrant anything 
new being placed on it. Even with these cars, a lack of noise is as desirable as on 
more later and more valuable cars; hence, any method of diminishing the noise 
which is unavoidable would be welcomed by the owners of that form of machine. 

In some cases, the construction of the motor and its parts will allow of fitting 
a large removable plate, extending the entire length of the motor, and covering 
all of the valve actions. Where this can be done it has the merit of few parts— 
simplicity, cleanliness, and good apearance—in addition to reducing the audible 
noises. If this cannot be done, either, a good substitute is shown in Fig. 20. 


iheX/dise.—f 




Fig. 19—What causes noise in the valve tappets, how it may be 
ascertained and consequently, remedied. 


sible and used. Lacking every other meth¬ 
od, the underpan can be removed from be¬ 
neath the engine; it will be large enough to 
fill the radiator at one trip. 

82. Suppose the motor is very hot and the 
water is not very cool. In that case, it is best 
to drain off the remaining water, which will 
be very hot and will help heat up any fresh 
water put in. After doing this, let the en¬ 
gine stand empty for a few moments in 
order that it may cool down somewhat. Then 
put in just a little water at a time, as add¬ 
ing a lot to a very hot engine may cause 
a sudden expansion which wull crack a cylin¬ 
der or water jacket. 

83. If it should happen that the motor is ex¬ 
ceedingly hot, this method may not he suffi¬ 
cient. Then draw off the water you have 


just put in, and repeat the process several 
times, until the metal of the cylinders has 
become thoroughly cooled, so that it will no 
longer heat up the water as you put it in. 

84. A hissing noise comes from under the 
hood, somewhere on the top of the engine. 

This probably is a pet cock which has been 
left open in priming the engine, or at some 
other time. 

85a Pet cocks are all closed tight, hut hissing 
sound continues when the engine is running. 

Spark plug may be broken or loose, so as to 
permit escape of compressed gases, w'hich 
causes the hissing. 

86. All spark plugs are all right and tight in 
the cylinder heads, hut hissing continues. It 

























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64 


The Auxiliary Control Group 


It consists of a piece of rubber tubing fitted around the tappet and valve 
spring, and fastened there. When properly attached, it will reduce the valve 
noises to a minimum. With a motor such as is shown in the sketch, it is an easy 
matter to fit this device. The tubing should be larger than the largest diameter 
of the valve spring by a very small amount, just sufficient for clearance, as a very 
large size makes the appearance of the completed muffler so bulky and bulging as 
to spoil any attempt at neatness or simplicity. 

The tube is cut as shown in the sep¬ 
arate sketch at the right, after which it is 
sprung around the parts and drawn to¬ 
gether. Next, the ends, where there doubt¬ 
less will be a circular member, are wound 
with wire or tape, drawing the balance of 
the piece together in so doing. It is not 
desirable or advisable to wire or tape the 
entire length, as it often is necessary to 
take these ofif to get at the valve motion, 
in which case removal is considerable of a 
task. 

The same is true of almost any other 
lack of adjustment; it gives an outward 
sign to the driver in the way of unneces¬ 
sary noise. In the efficient and economical 
operation of the car, every needless noise 
indicates some loss and something in the way of unusually rapid wear. It is 
apparent, then, that a novice driver very early in his career should learn to dis¬ 
tinguish all of the regular and necessary noises, so as to be able to discover in a 
moment any unnecessary and irregular noises, which mean time, trouble and 
expense. _ 

of course, calls for immediate attention, but many new 
LACK OF REGU" drivers think that some forms of irregular operation have 
LAR OPERATION, a perfectly natural cause and hence do not amount to much, 

at least not enough to be worthy of serious consideration. 
Such is not the case ; every noticeable irregularity of operation indicates some¬ 
thing which is out of order and should be corrected before further running. 

Among these a few may be pointed out. Thus the engine may fire or give an 
explosion regularly in each one of the cylinders, and then for some reason miss an 
explosion or fail to give an explosion in some one cylinder for a considerable 
length of time. This means that something is wrong with that cylinder; the igni¬ 
tion should be inspected first. A good way to try this is to unscrew the spark 
plug, and laying it on top of the cylinder so that a metal part of the plug contacts 
with the metal of the cylinder, crank the engine over a few times with the gas 
shut off. The ignition being left on, a spark will occur in the various cylinders 
in their regular order.^ When it comes to the suspected member, the spark plug 



Fig. 20—Simple method of enclosing the 
valve mechanism on old cars so as to reduce 
or eliminate all of their noise. 


may be due to a loose valve cap or a blow 
hole in a cap which has just opened up. Try 
and locate the cylinder from which it comes. 
W^hen this is done, slow the engine down to 
the minimum possible speed, then pour gaso¬ 
line over the valve cap which is suspected. 
If it has a hole or crack in it, the engine 
will speed up caused by the fuel leaking in. 

87. All valve caps are found to be tiglit, but 
the hiss continues. It has a deep sound, and 
seems to come from inside the cylinders. 
This is caused by defective piston rings or 
scored cylinder walls, which allow the gas 
during compression to escape by the piston 
rings. The pistons must be taken out and 
new rings fitted, or if the cylinder walls are 
found in bad shape, they must be reground. 


If this is very bad, requiring that much 
metal be taken off, it will mean also new 
piston rings and possibly a new piston. 

88. A light clicking sound conies from the 
valve side of the engine. It is regular an ^ 
continuous. If the valve is made up—tha^ 
is, has the head fastened to the stem instead 
of made integral with it—one of the valve 
heads may have worked loose. 

89. Valves are made in one piece, clicking 
continues. One of the valves must be loose in 
its guide, so that when it rises it strikes one 
side, then when it comes down it strikes the 
other. 

90. Valves fit guides perfectly, there is no 
looseness or wear perceptible, clicking con¬ 
tinues. If it is not the valves, stems or 




















66 


The Auxiliary Control Group 


for which is laid out on top in plain view, the spark may be seen plainly if one 
occurs, or the lack of it noticed if there is no action there. If no spark is forth¬ 
coming, there must be a reason why, and close application will find this. If, on 
the other hand, a spark does occur regularly and consistently, then another cylin¬ 
der must be at fault. 

Another form of intermittent action which the novice is likely to think usual 
and perfectly correct, but which is not, is that resulting from a clutch which is 
beginning to slip. As has been explained previously, the function of the clutch is 
to connect engine and transmission when a connection is desired, and to separate 
them when this is required. In general, clutches are held into action—that is, 
connecting engine and transmission—by means of springs. When these are poorly 
or unevenly adjusted, or when they have become worn or weak they do not hold 
as firmly as they should. At such a time the vehicle does not progress or else it 
moves forward by jerks. 

When the clutch takes hold, it moves forward, when this member slips it 
stands still. In this latter case, the engine may be turning at a furious rate, while 
the driver cannot understand why his car does not progress. In many such cases, 
if the springs alone are at fault, a few turns of a screwdriver or wrench will make 
the matter right, and the car will move along as well as could be asked. 

There is, however, the additional possibility that the surface or lining of the 
clutch may be worn, the slipping coming on these worn spots, or the surface may 
be only greasy, the slip coming when the grease is reached. In the last-named 
case, a little powder may be dusted onto the surface to absorb the grease or at 
least neutralize its action and no further trouble result. If the lining be worn, 
however, the driver can do nothing beyond tightening the springs up to a point 
where the clutch will hold continuously and get home with this arrangement, 
after which he proceeds to put on a new and perfect lining to replace the old 
worn one. 

When the water-cooling system has heated up to the point v/here the engine 
is about to seize, it will run intermittently—that is, it will run properly for a 
time, then seize partly—but before the engine actually stops will release and allow 
it to continue. In short, the heating of the cylinder walls and piston has reached 
a point where even smooth and continuous running is not possible, and it mani¬ 
fests this condition by almost stopping every now and then. To relieve this condi¬ 
tion, the driver should stop at the first supply of water, draw off what little very 
hot liquid the system contains and fill up to the limit of capacity with fresh cold 
water. 

In a case where this condition can be detected beyond any doubt, it is an 
excellent plan before running the motor again, even with a full supply of cold 
water, to introduce a little kerosene or other very thin lubricant into the cylinders 
above the pistons. This may be done by taking off a spark plug, valve cap, or 
other member which will give access to compression chamber, and pouring the 
lubricant in at that point. The object of this is to lubricate the hot and dry walls 
of the cylinder and piston before the two are moved across one another. If this 
be not done, there is the possibility of the sudden introduction of the cold water 


guides, it must be farther down in the valve 
operating system, as in the valve operating 
plunger or its guide, or, if not there, still 
farther down in the cams. 

91. In the operation of the car, a dull whirr¬ 
ing sound is heard when the oar is going fast 
hut not at slow speeds. This may be the 
speedometer drive gears. Frequently the 
noise which these make meshing with each 
other is not noticed until the car is sent 
along at a fast pace, when it becomes very 
apparent. 

92. How can this he remedied? Sometimes 
moving the gears apart a very slight amount 
will help. The application of a heavy grease 
or graphite does some good. Try both. 


93. If the engine won’t start, what should he 
done first? Look for fuel in the tank. No 
engine will run without it. Next find out if 
it is reaching the carburetor. Then be rea¬ 
sonably sure that the gas made there gets 
into the cylinder. A piece of waste uncon¬ 
sciously left in an inlet pipe will cause a 
world of trouble. 

94. If the fuel system is right throughoxit, 
gas in tank, free fiow to carburetor, good gas 
produced and getting into cylinders, and still 
the car won’t start. Try the battery system 
for a spark at each plug. If a battery tester 
is available, use it; if not, lay the plugs out 
on the cylinder heads so the points are vis¬ 
ible. Then turn the engine over slowly, 







68 


The Auxiliary Control Group 


^causing the jackets to shrink quickly and thus take hold of the pistons before the 
latter have had any chance to cool ofif. If both are dry or without lubricant be¬ 
tween them, this is more than possible ; it is quite probable. 

Another form of intermittent operation is brought about by operating the car 
at very slow speeds and may not be noticeable at higher rates. This is produced 
by a considerable amount of wear in the universal joints between engine and rear 
axle. Considering a car with two of these, there are four possible points where 
the wear may be considerable. Granting a large amount of wear at all four, when 
the car is operated very slowly, so that at times it drives the motor through its 
weight and momentum, while at all other times the motor is driving the car, there 
is a reversal of direction of drive. At each such reversal, the total amount of 
wear in the joints is taken up. For this reason there will be a noticeable lag in 

the movements of the car; first, when 
there is a change from the motor pro¬ 
viding the forward impulse to the car 
as a source of movement, and second, 
when the reverse change is made. 
That is, at every reversal of power, 
including as well the use of the re¬ 
verse gear in the transmission, all of 
this wear with its consequent lost mo¬ 
tion must be taken up before there is 
any movement of the car. Repeated 
several times, this is likely to puzzle 
even an experienced driver, for so 
soon as more power is used or great¬ 
er speed brought about, the trouble 
disappears; it is apparent only at 
slowest speeds, when the time taken 
up in absorbing this lost motion is 
stethoscope to find out the appreciable. At other times, changes 
o‘;ativf''of'\rSubre' Speed would not have any notice¬ 

able result of this kind, and the lag 
would be of so very short duration as compared with the speed of all other move¬ 
ments as not to be noticeable. 

There are, of course, other forms of trouble which will produce intermittent 
action of the car or engine—that is, will bring about a lack of regular and contin¬ 
uous operation. In general, anything which has this effect is wrong in principle, 
and should be investigated. In so far as motor operation is concerned, any instru¬ 
ment which will indicate regular and systematic operation, or the lack of it, is a 
great help to beginner and expert alike. For this purpose, a modification of the 
stethoscope used by physicians is very handy, since it magnifies and makes more 
clear internal noises. In Fig. 21 a driver is shown listening to the operation of 
his engine with one of these devices. 

By placing this first on one bearing and then on the next, any abnormal 
noises or any unusual action will be made apparent at once, without waiting for 



Fig. 21—Using the 
source of unusual 
an excellent preventative 


watching for the spark. If all four spark 
in the open air, they are fairly certain to do 
so within the cylinder. 

95. Motor hard to start, hut by continued 
cranking one or two cylinders will fire. Bat¬ 
teries must be too weak to give a good hot 
spark all around. Try them. If gone, turn 
over to magneto and try to start on that, re¬ 
member that it must be cranked more quick¬ 
ly. A good plan is to shut the ignition off, 
open the gas wide, then wind the engine oyer 
quite a few turns, in order to fill the cylin¬ 
ders up with good gas. Then turn on the 
magneto, and pull her over one short, sharp, 
and very quick turn. 

96. There is plenty of gas and a good spark, 
hut the gas does not seem to ignite. Lack 


of compression. This can be proven by open¬ 
ing the compression cocks and pulling the 
engine over with them open, then closing 
and pulling her over again. There should 
be a great deal of difference. If not, com¬ 
pression is too weak to produce a mixture 
which will start. 

97. What is the remedy for this? Many times 
this is caused by gumming up of the piston 
rings through using too thick an oil, or one 
which is unsuitable to the motor in some 
other way. Open all cocks and pour in kero¬ 
sene or denatured alcohol. The former will 
cut out gummed rings in from one-half to 
one hour. The latter will do a more thor¬ 
ough job and remove all combustion head 
carbon as well, but requires at least 8 hours. 











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70 


The Auxiliary Control Group 


the trouble which it is sure to bring, to show it up. After the bearings, all sur¬ 
faces where parts slide over one another, as in the case of cylinder walls, etc., can 
be tested in the same manner. In this way the entire car can be gone over and 
any departure from regular and systematic action detected at once before there is 
any trouble or before anything can happen which will cause considerable expense 
and lose to the owner the use of his car for some time. 


STARTING, AND ITS 


are likely to frighten the beginner, for much has 
been said in the past few years about the dan- 


ATTENDANT OPERATIONS, gers of cranking, etc. The rapid progress 

which has been made in starting devices in the 
past two years has made any fear of this operation, insofar as new cars are con¬ 
cerned, groundless. On the older makes, however, and the machines which are 
sold at a very modest price, the engine must in many cases be started by hand. 

If a few simple instructions be followed, this need not entail any hardships, 
for it is a simple operation. In general, without going into the construction or 
operation of the motor, it becomes necessary to swing the crankshaft and with it 
the flywheel and the 



Fig. 22-—The two methods of holding 
the starting crank, at the left; A shows 
the wrong way, with the thumb around the 
handle. At the right, B indicates the 
proper and safe method. 


center and is descend- 
i n g , the explosion 
drives it downward, 
and it continues to 
turn in that direction 
in which it has been 
started. 

If, on the other 
hand, the crank be 
turned so slowly that 
the piston has not 
reached the dead cen¬ 
ter when the spark 
comes, then the explo- 


various connecting 
rods and their pistons 
over so that in the 
cylinder, which is 
ready to fire, the pis¬ 
ton shall pass the up¬ 
per dead center and 
be descending before 
the spark occurs. If 
this be done, the spark 
explodes the charge, 
and, since the piston 
has passed the upper 
sion will throw it backward—that is, in the opposite direction to which it is being 
turned by hand—and it will continue to run backward. Movement in this direc¬ 
tion is useless, since with it the car cannot be propelled forward as de¬ 
sired; but the more important point lies in the opportunity of injury to the 
person cranking. 

Since the crankshaft normally turns toward the right or clockwise, the start¬ 
ing crank is so constructed that it connects with the shaft only when turned in 
that direction and with the motor shaft lagging or dragging behind it. To efiect 
this, it is necessary to construct the crank with a lip or projecting part which 
connects with a similar one on the crankshaft. When the person cranking has 
made an effort to throw the engine over dead center for the initial start, a slight 
pull toward himself will draw the starting handle out of mesh with the engine 
shaft. If this be not done, and the engine starts, its continuous running will 
throw the crank out. In this way, the operator will receive no harm, even if he 


64A. In using the accelerator pedal, which 
is between the clutch on the left and the 
brake on the right, one foot must be taken 
off of either of the others. Which plan is 
best? It is safest to take the right foot off 
the brake, as there is little occasion to use 
this when speeding up, which is the only- 
reason for using the accelerator. This 
leaves the left foot on the clutch and if 
danger arises, the right foot may be lifted 
off the accelerator and moved onto the brake 
quite quickly, while at the same time the 
left foot presses out the clutch and stops 
the application of power. 

65A. Is there a better plan than this? 
Motorists generally consider the arrange¬ 
ment by which the accelerator is placed be¬ 
yond the other two, at the left on a right 


drive car and at the right on a left-driven 
machine, is superior to placing it between 
the others. There is another method affected 
by some makers of making it a heel-oper¬ 
ated pedal, placed in line with one of the, 
others, but this has not found favor, being 
more difficult to learn and use. Incidentally, 
it is a poor plan, because neither of the 
major pedals will ever be used in combina- 
Uon with it. That is, when the accelerator 
is in use, neither of the others are; when 
the others are in use, either one or both, the 
accelerator is not. 

66A. Is it advisable to change carburetor 
adjustment frequently? No, on the contrary, 
it is decidedly inadvisable. The ordinary 
American car does a considerable amount 
of slow speed v/ork in the cities and an 


















72 


The Auxiliary Control Group 


does not lean backward, but continues to hold the crank in mesh with the shaft. 

This disengagement is brought about by the shape of the meshing faces of 
the two parts, which shape similarly prevents disengagement when the engine 
starts to run in the opposite or wrong direction. In that case, the engine shaft 
takes a firm hold on the starting handle and carries the same along with it. If 
the person who is cranking it has retained a hold on it, and it seldom is possible to 
crank an ordinary motor without continuing a more or less firm grip on it, this 
reverse movement will come against the person’s hand and arm, and, unless able 
to let go quickly, great injury will be done. 

When an engine fires too quickly in this manner—and it may be 
BACKFIRING, due as much to an improper setting of the spark lever as to the 
slow motion of cranking—this is called backfiring. When an 
engine backfires, the person who cranks it invariably receives a severe blow on 
hand, wrist, or arm. There are several ways in which the driver can protect 
himself against this. The first, which is not so easily learned and has never be¬ 
come as popular, is that of cranking left handed. When the left hand is used, 
the pulling-up process must be done in such a way that, should the motor back¬ 
fire, the blow will come upon the flexed arm and upon the hand in such a position 
as to make opening the fingers an easy matter. 

Left-hand cranking, then, has the double advantage that the arm is flexed and 
thus receives and absorbs the blow without doing any damage, and also the 
fingers may be opened and the crank allowed to slip out of them so that no 
further blows are sustained. This is made possible by the thumb being on the 
upper side so that the crank handle does not work against it but against the 
fingers, which are much more flexible. 

This lack of flexibility of the thumb, as compared with the fingers, gives the 
clue to the second method of cranking and the one which has been adopted most 
widely. This is pictured in Fig. 22, which shows that in cranking with the right 
hand, the thumb should be folded back, and not wrapped around the handle, _^as 
in the grip assumed on a baseball bat or other round object. When this is done, 
the crank is drawn upward by means of the fingers only, and if a backfire occurs, 
these can be opened to let the crank rotate harmlessly. After it has been learned, 
it is as easy to crank in this manner as formerly when the thumb was wrapped 
around the handle. 

In the construction of engines, however, a point has been reached now where 
the majority of them will start on the spark, as it is termed, about every other 
time. In stopping the engine, when it has been running, the spark is shut off but 
the gas or throttle is left on. In this way the cylinders are left filled with gas, all 
ready for restarting. When it is desired to start again, the spark is thrown on, 
and by moving it slightly it usually is possible to produce a spark in the cylinder 
which is nearest ready for the explosion. If the cylinder is already full of com¬ 
bustible gas and a spark is produced in it, an explosion will result and the engine 
will start to run. This* is called starting from the seat or starting on the spark, 
and some drivers become so expert in manipulating their levers at stopping and 
starting as to produce this desired result almost every time. 


equal amount of fast work in the country, 
being compelled to change from the one to 
the other at a moment’s nolice. This re¬ 
quires a kind of general adjustment. It is 
impossible when constantly changing in this 
way to get the best effect of either by chang¬ 
ing the carburetor adjustment. If the fac¬ 
tory setting gives good all-around results, 
do not monkey with it unless you feel cap¬ 
able of adjusting it to give better results. 

67A. Can a carburetor be set to give 
maximum fuel economy ana the best speed 
or greatest power at the same time? No, 
the two things are contradictory. A driver 
can have but one of them. He must choose 
speed and power regardless of fuel consump¬ 
tion, or economy with the highest speed cut 
off. 


68A. What causes the motor to heat the 
quickest and consequently should be avoided 
most carefully? A lack of lubricant will 
cause the engine to heat with great rapidit3q 
and as soon as the old oil present on the 
cylinder and piston walls, as a thin film, 
has burned off, the parts will soon expand 
and the pistons will seize. 

69A. Next to a lack of lubricant, what 
causes a motor to heat most quickly? Too 

rich a fuel mixture. 

70A. How is this overheating noticed? 

The motor runs hard, giving out a harsh 
metallic sound and steam issues from the 
radiator cap. In adition, heat waves may 
be noted coming iip from all parts of the 
hood. 





74 


The Auxiliary Control Group 


A large number of the modern starters, notably those of the gas 
STARTING and acetylene type, are based upon this action. The principle of 
DEVICES. these devices is to introduce into the cylinder which is ready a 
charge of explosive gas by means of a hand or other pump and a 
special vaporizer. This done, the spark is produced as outlined above, and the 
motor starts. The idea is to substitute the certain introduction of a charge which 
is known to be combustible and into the cylinder which is certain to be ready, for 
the more or less uncertain rnethod of leaving the gas on when stopping and hoping 
that a proper charge of gas will be drawn into all cylinders and that this will 
remain there until the driver wants to start again. 

For rendering starting easy there are a number of devices which are known 
as primers. The function of these is to introduce into the cylinders at starting 
time a fresh and certain charge, rich enough in fuel to be combustible beyond any 
question of doubt. The simplest way in which this may be done is by keeping 
under the seat or wherever it is handy, a small oil can filled with gasoline. By 
opening the valve caps or loos¬ 
ening spark plugs, a little of 
this may be squirted into each 
cylinder, and, being accompa¬ 
nied by little air, is sure to 
vaporize into a very rich mix¬ 
ture, which is almost certain 
to start at the first spark. 

An elaboration of this is the 
form carried on the dashboard 
in which a simple pressure of 
toe or hand forces fuel 
through separate pipes to all 
cylinders without loosening 
anything. Naturally, this is 
more expensive than the lo- 
cent oil can, and it requires 
considerable piping, which 
makes the engine appear com¬ 
plicated. A recent device, 
which has the double advan¬ 
tage of simplicity and low cost is a spark plug which is made with a passage on 
the side not unlike a priming cup, as these have come to be called. 
This passage is controlled by means of a movable handle, so that by simply turn¬ 
ing it an opening into the combustion chamber is available. 

This saves loosening up the spark plug or other parts, besides saving a great 
deal of time. When these are used, priming is a simple matter of turning the 
handle, squirting gasoline into each, and closing them again. 







Cavvect 
Bxiylsd. Turve 
■to I 





Fig. 23.—The proper and safe method of making a right-angled 
turn to the right, namely, close to the curb or roadside. 


71 A. What is a piston slap? This is a 
noise seeming to come from within the cyl¬ 
inders, but which cannot be traced to any 
one or any particular place. 

72A. In that case, how can it he located? 
By means of a stethoscope or other means 
of transmitting the internal noises of the en¬ 
gine to some sensitive part of the body. 
Some expert engine tuners can get the same 
results by holding one end of a long metal 
rod between their teeth, and placing the other 
end on the various suspected parts of the 
engine. 

73A. What causes a piston slap? Experts 
disagree on this, but it is generally thought 
to be caused by a piston which is loose on 


its pin so that it proceeds upwards until it 
meets considerable resistance and then is 
forced down sharply. Similarly, it is forced 
down readily until a suction above draws 
it back by the amount of wear in the pis¬ 
ton pin hole. Another explanation is that 
a ring may be loose in its groove in a ver¬ 
tical direction, and bring about noises in 
the same manner as described for a loose 
piston. Another explanation is that the pis¬ 
ton is too loose in the cylinder and sets in 
it at a slight angle, until pressure against 
it as on the compression and explosion 
strokes, suddenly forces it to straighten up. 

74A. How can it he remedied? It is best 
to put on new piston rings, and if that does 
































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76 


The Auxiliary Control Group 


are many and varied. What holds true of city work does not apply 
GENERAL when conditions on country roads are considered. So generally is 
DRIVING this recognized that in all States where speeds are specified in the 
RULES automobile laws a wide distinction is made between the permissible 
rate in the city and that in the country. Aside from keeping within 
the legal and correct rate at all times, the driver will do well to consider his own 

safety and that of his passen¬ 
gers at all times, to say noth¬ 
ing of the possibilities in the 
way of injuries to pedestrians, 
particularly young children, 
who in the cities must use the 
streets for a playground. 

In the larger cities, this con¬ 
dition is common, and drivers 
who have a real regard for 
their personal safety and that 
of others should drive very 
slowly and cautiously through 
neighborhoods and sections of 
the city where there are many 
children. He cannot tell at 
what moment a boy, chasing 
a baseball, football or other 
plaything, may dart across 
what seemed a moment before 
like a clear street, this move¬ 
ment bringing him directly 
across the path of the swiftly 
moving vehicle. 

In general, driving has few rules which are universal. In this country, all 
traffic follows the rule of keeping to the right and of passing vehicles ahead and 
moving in the same direction to the left. Motorists always should offer assist¬ 
ance to another driver who appears to be stalled. In making turns, the driver 
should signal to those behind by extending his right arm as far as possible, so 
that this may be seen in the rear, even if the top be raised. If this is a turn to the 
right, the curb or edge of the road should be hugged as closely as possible, for 
the double reason of safety to those behind on the first road or street, and for 
the sake of safety in not bringing the car too close to the center of the second 
road or street. 

When a wide turn is made at a right-angled corner, there is the possibility 
that another vehicle may approach moving in the opposite direction, before the 
driver can get back to the right side of the road on which he belongs. The proper 
way in which to make a turn of this sort is shown in Fig. 23, while the next 
sketch. Fig. 24, shows a correct turn to the left. In the latter case, the driver 



Fig. 24—The best method of making a right-angled turn to 
the left, showing at X, a permissible way, at Y, a better one, 
and at Z, the best plan. 


not stop the noise, a new piston, or at least 
have the piston pin and its hole in the pis¬ 
ton inspected for possible wear. On some 
motors, it can not be removed. 

75A. What does a sharp whistling' noise 
indicate? The escape of gas under pressure. 
Such a case would mean a defective gas¬ 
ket or packing for some part of the inlet 
or exhaust pipes. 

76A. How can this he determined ac¬ 
curately? By listening closely, it will be 
noted whether it comes during a suction or 
an exhaust stroke. In addition, if the ex¬ 
haust either fumes or an odor will be more 
or less noticeable. When the offending pipe 
has been located, it is a simple matter to 


go over all its joints and packings, until 
the bad one is found. 

77A. A loud knocking comes from the en¬ 
gine? This generally indicates a loose con¬ 
necting rod. 

78A. How can it he stopped? By tight¬ 
ening up the rod in question or if it seems 
well distributed and occurs fairly regular¬ 
ly, it may be that all rods are loose. These 
should be tightened quickly, after the trou¬ 
ble is ascertained, as a great deal of dam¬ 
age can be done in a few moments by loose 
connecting rods, 

79A. Could one come loose entirely? 

Yes, this is possible and quite probable with 
some types of big end fastenings. When it 
happens, the flying rod end usually wrecks 



























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78 


The Auxiliary Control Group 


should make a complete detour around an imaginary center of the intersection, 
marked A. This is the point where the center line of the two streets would meet 
if actually drawn, and represents the first point at which the motorist can pass 
from the correct right side of the one street to the correct right side of the other; 
in sliort, it is the legal turning point. 

When the reverse turn is made at a corner—that is, the complete reverse from 
traveling north on one side to moving south on the other—the motorist should 



round this same point, because at any other part of the crossing he would be in 
the path of other vehicles, and consequently liable to damage. 

At crossings which are not at right angles, many peculiar accidents occur. 
No set rules can be given for these beyond advising each motorist to act along 
the lines of greatest safety at all times. Thus at a diagonal crossing, such as is 
shown in Fig. 25, the motorist at A would depend upon the rate of speed at 
which he was moving relative to the approach of B and their two positions 
relative to the line of intersection, as to whether he would attempt to cross in 
front of him or give him {B) the right of way. From, a similar standpoint, B 
would have to be governed by the speed and position of his opponent A’s car. 


the crankcase, and often the cylinders and 
other parts with it. 

80A. If the starting* handle flies hack, on 
trying* to start? The spark lever is aavanc- 
ed too far, and is in such a position that 
the motor will backfire, and possibly run 
backwards. 

81A. What different does this make? It 

is dangerous to the person trying to start 
the engine, because the crank is so con¬ 
structed that it catches when engine pres¬ 


sure is exerted in a backward direction. 
This means that if the motor runs back¬ 
wards, the crank will turn with it until 
freed by some external means. 

82A. Why should the operator care or 
worry about this? In backfiring and contin¬ 
uing to turn, the operator’s danger comes 
in the first sudden backward movement, 
when he is pressing forward on the crank. 
This has been the cause of more broken 
arms and wrists than any other one thing. 






















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80 


The Auxiliary Control Group 


In general, either one could swerve slightly for the sake of safety, in case the 
other showed no disposition to give a fair share of the road. This possibility is 
shown by the dotted lines. 

In a crossing like this, too, when the cars are moving in the same direction 
so that their paths converge, the actions of each should be governed by the speed 
and position of the other. As shown in Fig. 26, the case of A and B converging 
toward the right side of the single street is complicated by the appearance of C 
crossing the path of B. In a case of this sort, unless B were moving unusually 
fast and had considerable of a &tart over both A and C, it would be the best plan 
for B to slow down, let C cross in front of him, A meanwhile proceeding down 
the street. This arrangement would give A his crossing in safety and leave him a 
clear street at all times, while doing the same for both C and B, the latter under 
any other plan running the gauntlet of trouble from both of the other sources. 

And so it goes, road conditions and situations might be multiplied indefinitely. 
The best plan is to bear in mind at all times the motto which has. been adopted 
by many societies and associations: ‘‘Safety First.” This will cover not alone 
the various crossings and maneuvering on the road, but also the more vital matter 
of speed. In this latter the only way is to keep within the legal rate at all times, 
and to drive in such a way as not to endanger other users of the highways at any 
time. 


A word of caution relative to coasting. Many drivers 
COASTING like to go downhill with everything cut out, the car descend- 

PRECAUTIONS. ing of its own weight. This is accomplished by shutting off 
the throttle when well started on the down grade, and then 
holding the clutch out. While freeing the car of its biggest drawback—or, more 
properly, holdback—the engine, this has the disadvantage of taking away at the 
same time the biggest, best and most certain brake, this self-same engine. Whije 
the car does coast more freely, so much more so as to give a feeling of flying 
almost, the very fact of being on a considerable down grade makes the best brake 
of the utmost importance. This alone should stamp the practice as dangerous 
and one which should not be followed or commended. 

In passing by horses or through herds of cattle or other animals, the driver 
should remember that to these animals the motor is a thing of terror, that it 
frightens them almost without exception, and the least that a good driver can do 
is to slow down so as to frighten them as little as possible. When passing horses 
which are pulling wagons with either women or children, if the animals show a 
tendency to bolt, the driver should stop his machine and help to walk the horses 
past it, soothing them as much as possible meanwhile. 

The best method of holding the steering wheel is open to discussion. Some 
drivers prefer one method, others another, each with a good argument in his 
favor. In grasping the wheel at the two opposite sides, as far apart as possible 
and on a horizontal line parallel to the driver’s chest, and with the fingers around 
the upper side of it, a position is assumed with which no one can find any fault. 
It has the prime advantage of giving the driver as much leverage over the steer¬ 
ing system as is possible, at the same time giving a double grip so that in case 
one hand should slip there is nothing lost. At the same time, the spark and 
throttle finger levers may be manipulated by simply shifting one hand for an 
inch or so. 

In case a wide turn in made, the turning may be done with one hand, sliding 
the other around meanwhile so that in case this is followed by a similar turn in 
the opposite, the last-named hand can grip the wheel and pull it in the opposite 
direction quite readily. In case a full turn is to be made, the wheel can be pulled 
around with the left, say, the right meanwhile simply taking hold as the left pulls 
it around, and thus preventing a movement in the other direction, much the same 
as pulling in a rope, when one hand is used for the pulling while the other simply 
holds it as pulled in. 









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82 


The Auxiliary/ Control Group 


It has been urged against this method that it tires the arms, this being very 
noticeable on a long ride. Moreover, with the very low form of seat, it means 
reaching upward all of the time. For the racy type of runabout, many drivers 
adopt the method of holding the wheel with a single hand, grasping the rim firmly 
at the bottom only, either with the knuckles turned up or down, as preferred. By 
bottom is meant the edge or side which is nearest the driver, and, considering that 
the wheel is set in an inclined plane, actually is the lowest or bottom point. 

For ordinary running along a straight road or pavement, this method is all 
right, but when any emergency arises, and with a fast-moving car they arise 
quickly, the driver has a very poor method of controlling the movement of the 
automobile. Even though it be restful and convenient, this objection alone is a 
strong one against it. 

An intermediate grip might be said to have practically all of the advantages 
of both without any of the disadvantages of either. This is one in which the 
hands are separated by one-quarter of the distance around the wheel and at i 
equal distances from the body on either side—that is, the right is one-eighth of the 
circumference up from the bottom on that side, and the left at an equal distance 
on the other side. This does not tire as the wide grip does, yet gives a firmer hold 
than the single-handed method. Moreover, on a straightaway road, with the 
engine running smoothly and no other vehicles in sight, one hand may be dropped, 
leaving the other in its usual position. This rests the hand which is dropped but 
still leaves the driver in a position to control every movement of the car quickly, 
easily, and accurately. 

Knowing the eight items in the control of the car thoroughly and in detail, 
knowing what things will prevent the motor from running or from acting properly 
if omitted and forgotten, and knowing and bearing in mind at all times the eight 
secondary items of the control system, the novice is in a fair way to learn to 
drive and drive right. If these rules, as laid down on the preceding pages, have 
been learned thoroughly in conjunction with the actual manipulation of the car, 
so much the better, for they will have been imprinted upon the driver’s memory 
in a way which will make it impossible for him to forget them. 

Learning with book and car side by side is the finest way possible, for the 
one teaches the how of each lever and rod, while the vehicle gives the actual 
example and a means of proving the statements made in the book. It serves as 
well to emphasize these. In a short time, it will be found that many of the move¬ 
ments and actions previously laid down as separate and distinct will have become 
second nature, so that the driver does not know or realize that he does each one 
of them every time. Thus, with the clutch, when learning to drive, the operator 
has to stop and think every time he shifts gears or wishes to check the movement 
of the car that he must depress the clutch pedal. After a very little driving, this 
action becomes involuntary, until very soon he is doing it without realizing that 
it should be, was being, or had been done. The writer has known drivers who 
have become so accustomed to making these various motions that they did not 
know they made them, and, in certain cases, denied haying done so. 

In watching the work of a driver who has reached this stage, it will not be 
considered that driving is difficult, for the various actions blend off into one an¬ 
other so well and each seems to follow the one before so naturally and easily that 
only he who is learning realizes that the driver is doing a dozen different things 
at once and doing all of them well. This is the perfection which all drivers seek 
and which comes to all only with long practice and considerable experience. It is 
possible for everyone, requiring only time and patience. 




CHAPTER III. 


Repairs and Upkeep. 

After the beginner has mastered the more simple matter of operation of the 
car—that is, the art of driving—and with it the more simple troubles, their symp¬ 
toms and remedies, he begins to feel equal to tackling bigger things. Operating 
the car under all conditions of wind, weather and temperature, to say nothing of 
all different mechanical conditions, he is prepared to tackle as large a job as comes 
within the scope of the amateur. This will preclude such pieces of work as 
scraping main bearings, retiming an engine, lengthening frames or wheelbases, 
and similar work which obviously is for the expert repairman only. 

Short of these and kindred matters, however, there is little that the skilled 
driver of even one season’s experience cannot tackle. Over and above keeping 
the car in condition to run daily and continuously, the first big job in this line 
which will come to the new driver, barring, of course, any accidents or untoward 
happenings which will bring along a big and difficult job more quickly, is the fall 
or spring overhaul. By this, reference is had to the first end-of-the-season over¬ 
haul of the entire vehicle, taking off the body and taking the mechanism down as 
far as its condition warrants. 

As to the latter, the new driver will require all of his year’s experience to tell 
him where to stop short—that is, where to draw the line between needful work 
and that which is entirely unnecessary. In the modern car, which has had but 
one year’s careful and considerate use, this may be drawn very early, for 
cars are so well built nowadays as to require little more than intelligent and con¬ 
sistent care and operation for several years, up to, say, 10,000 miles travel. Be¬ 
yond that, however, many little signs point the way to small things which need 
attention, so that the driver begins to say to himself: ‘T’ll take up those bearings 
when I overhaul the car,” or ‘T’ll take out the slack in those rods, or reline the 
brakes or clutch or lower the seat so as to make it more comfortable or bend the 
operating levers to clear the body more, etc.” 

In taking up this work, the first thing to do is to get a good, clear, clean, light 
place in which to do the work. Of course, it may be done anywhere and in any 
manner; but by far the best results are obtained when there is plenty of room, 
lots of light, and considerable thought given to the best of ways and means. 


How to Remedy the Most Common Automobile Troubles 


98. When the hody sciueaks, what causes it? 

This is a common trouble caused by loose¬ 
ness somewhere. With a wood body it means 
that some flat piece or panel is not nailed, 
screwed,. or glued as tightly to the support¬ 
ing timber or post as it should be. Conse¬ 
quently, when the body is racked or twisted 
by the road surfaces, one surface presses 
against or rubs over the other. 

99. What is the remedy for this? If the of¬ 
fending parts can be discovered, screws put 
through the panel into the nearest post will 
reduce it materially if not stop it entirely. 

100. What causes similar squeaks in metal 
bodies? When the metal is joined to the 
wood parts, as the dash, the posts for the 


seat frames or the longitudinals which sup¬ 
port the whole body, there is not sufficient 
fastening whether the means be nails or 
screws. 

101. What is the remedy for this? The 

same as with the wood body; Find the 
squeaking place, and then nail or screw it 
down. 

102. Are there other sources of body squeaks 
and noises, except those mentioned? Yes; 
many times the windshield is not properly 
attached to the body and a noise emanates 
from this fastening. In general, old cars did 
not have the fenders attached firmly enough, 
and as soon as the car had been run a little 


84 





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86 


Repairs and Upkeep 


Given a proper place in which to work, the first thing is to place the chassis in a 
more or less permanent position, jack it up there, and then remove the body. In 
some cases, the latter is separate from the dashboard, when it is a comparatively 
simple matter of taking out six or eight bolts and then getting help enough to lift 
it off and carry it to the storage space. In doing this, it is considered advisable 
to lift one end and place a large wooden cross member under it there, then to lift 
the other and put a piece of board or scantling under it there, carrying it by means 
of these. 

By doing this, the varnished surface is not fingered or scratched, nor is the 
woodwork in any danger of being marred. It takes several men to lift a body, 
and this gives a good way of handling it. If the body is not to be repainted, it is 
well to wash it thoroughly before removing, then polish it after moving and 
before covering. This will leave it in good condition for immediate use, after 
the mechanical work is finished. 


to the dashboard, or when the construction of the car 
WHEN THE BODY makes it necessary to take off the latter, then there is con- 
IS CONNECTED siderable work to be done. This means taking off the 

steering post usually, as well as disconnecting many of the 
ignition wires, also the lubrication telltale, or possibly the lubricator itself, the 
lighting control zvires, szvitches or pipes, the horn connections, while the removal 
of the steering gear means disconnecting spark and throttle control. 

All of this is slow, careful work, and, since the driver, even if clever at 
handling the car on the road, is more or less new to all these parts, it is advisable 
to mark everything. The ignition wires, for instance, should be tied up with a 

small tag, containing the num¬ 
ber of each. Similarly, each 
part which is removed should 
be marked, tagged, or other¬ 
wise have its position, func¬ 
tion, or connection marked so 
that it will be a simple matter 
to put it back where it be¬ 
longs without a great deal of 
fussing or needless trouble. 
Having done all this, the 
driver should tackle as next in order the removal of rims and tires, or, if these 
are in the best of condition, of the wheels complete with tires. Taking these off 
invariably means the disconnecting and removal of the brake parts, since all brakes 
are located in the rear hubs now. This is not difficult, since it means but the 
removal of a few eotter pins and then the connecting bolts, after which the rods 
may be taken off. Removing the wheels is more or less simple, depending upon 
the type of the axle and its condition. The latter has an influence through rust, 
wear, or misuse, while the former is a matter of design. Thus of the usual semi- 
doating form it means taking off the hub cap, then removing the axle nut, when 
the wheel can be lifted off bodily, if the brakes have been disconnected. 



Fig. 27—General appearance of the complete car mechanism 
when the body is removed. 


ways these loosened up and made a great 
deal of noise. 

103. Can noisy fenders of this type he 
quieted? Yes, by fastening them together or 
to the frame of the car with a very stout iron, 
which has plenty of attaching surface where 
it joins the fender. Use plenty of good big 
bolts or rivets. If bolts are used, cut off 
the ends and rivet them over so they cannot 
come loose or shake off and be lost. 

104. How should any wqrk on fenders he 
done? Whenever the amateur finds it neces¬ 
sary to do any work upon fenders or other 
similar light sheet metal work on his car, he 
should use a wooden mallet, not the ordinary 
metal hammer. In addition, he should never 


hammer or pound on an unsupported surface, 
but should hold a heavy piece of metal un¬ 
derneath, on the side toward the supporting 
member. 

105. If this heavy piece of metal he not 
used, what will happen? The first blow and all 
successive ones will simply make dents in 
the metal work which will be difficult to take 
out. Moreover, such hammering on an un¬ 
supported surface, like the projecting shelf 
of a fender, only weakens it at its nearest 
support or puts a permanent bend in it. 

106. An ordinary hody is rather heavy; how 
can one man handle it? One man cannot 
handle it; he must have at least one assis¬ 
tant for a small body and three for a large. 




































































88 


Repairs and Upkeep 



Similarly, with the three-quarter and full-floating types, it is necessary only 
to take off the hub cap and then the nut on the end of the axle, except in some 
forms of full-floating in which the axleshaft is made without a nut on the end. In 
the latter forms, removing 
the wheel means removing 
the shaft also, which is that 
much additional work toward 
taking down the car. 

Having wheels and tires 
off, the car looks much like 
Fig. 28; Fig. 27, which was 
previously shown, depicting 
the machine before anything 
was removed. Next in order, 
the various groups should be removed, as, for instance, the water group, consist¬ 
ing of radiator and its supports and connections, followed by the exhaust group, 
including exhaust pipe, muffler, cutout pedal, with all connections and supports. 

Next, the operating levers 
and pedals should be treated as 
a separate group and removed 
all together. This means break¬ 
ing all connections, taking off 
not only the levers themselves, 
but all of their rods and sec¬ 
ondary levers, as well as all 
supports. In this condition, the 
chassis looks like Fig. 29. Prior 
to taking off the rear axle as 
the next step, it is necessary to remove the torque rod and the driving shaft which 
connects the shaft from the transmission with the rear axle. In doing this, it may 
be of service to take off also all radius or distance rods, or it may not, according 
to the design. 

Finishing up the rear con¬ 
struction, the axle is now re¬ 
moved quite easily by loosening 
the nuts which hold it to the 
springs, and dropping it to the 
floor of the garage. Now there 
is only the clutch, between en¬ 
gine and transmission, to be ta¬ 
ken out before either of the big 
units can be disposed of. This 



Fig. 29—The chassis from above as it appears when the con¬ 
trolling levers, exhaust system and radiator have been 
taken oflf. 



9 



h . 




Fig. 


30—By taking off the driving shaft, torque rod and rear 
axle, the chassis is made to look like this. 


is not a difficult step, for in the usual case there is a universal joint on one side, 
preferably the transmission side. When this is opened, the larger part of the 
clutch will come out very readily, as one would expect, the joint having been put 
there for that purpose. In this condition, the chassis has been made to look like 

Fig. 30- - 


On a limousine or other unusually heavy 
form, at least six men will be needed. 

107. What care should be exercised in taking' 
off a body? Usually a car body is held on by 
six or eight bolts. These should be taken 
off first. Then one end—say the rear— 
should be lifted up from below and a long 
cross stick placed under this and above the 
frame. This should be set central, so that 
there is room for one or two men to take 
hold outside of the body on either end. Then 
the same process should be repeated in the 
front. Then a pair of horses, a bench or 
other spot should be prepared for the body 
when it is lifted off. This done, it is a sim¬ 


ple matter to lift it up bodily and carry it 
to the place designated. 

108. Suppose the car ha.s inside levers, as on 
almost all 1913 and 1914 forms? Then, 
when the front end is lifted, it must be 
raised enough to clear these when walking 
backward with the body. This introduces 
considerable trouble, and may mean that the 
front end of the body will have to be hoisted 
up with a crane or block and fall while one 
set of men lift the rear end and another 
wheels the chassis forward out of the way. 

109. With reference to the surface of the car 
body itself. This should never be touched 
with the inside of the fingers, as the per- 

































































































































90 


Repairs and Upkeep 


TO TAKE OUT THE 
TRANSMISSION 


depends upon its design; if supported from below, it 
means holding it up by a pair of jacks, or other support, 
while the bolts are loosened, then dropping it down to 
the floor. If, on the other hand, it is supported from 
above, the nuts and bolts may be removed, then the unit lifted out by means of a 

small crane, by block and tackle, 
or lifted bodily by two men. It 
is advisable in tackling as ex¬ 
tensive a job as this to make 
special stands for axles, trans¬ 
mission, and engine. With these 
ready (their construction will 
be enlarged upon later), the 

Fig. 31—Next the clutch is removed and then the transmission, UnitS should be pUt UpOn them 

as soon as removed from the 



leaving the appearance like this. 


t . .r 


-V .. 





1 






chassis frame. With the gearbox gone, there remains but the frame, springs, 
front axle, and power plant, as 
shown in Fig. 31. 

The last named is next in 
order. If, as stated before, the 
dashboard was not taken out at 
first when removing the steer- 
ing gear, it must come out now, 
for its presence will interfere 

with the more important and Fig. 32 —By taking out the motor and dashboard, the chasiit 
difficult job of taking out the stripped right down to the frame, springs and front axle. 

engine. In the motor shown, and in many others, the engine feet are constructed 

with a vertical dange and a lip which 
rests upon the top of the main frame. 
The vertical portion is drilled for the 
bolts, which serve only to hold the arms 
or feet against the side frame member, 
the lip doing the actual supporting. To 
take the motor out, one must take off 
these bolts, and then lift it bodily up¬ 
ward until the lowest portion of the 
arms clears the frame. It may be swung 
to either side then and out of the way. 
The car now looks like Fig. 32—that is, 
it has been reduced to its lowest terms, 

Fig. 33-Appearance of the carburetor or inlet "Othing being left but the frmnC, front 
fide of the motor, when complete outside of the axlc and Springs, and the rear springs. 

There is little reason or necessity for 
carrying the dissembling process any further, at least in this respect. 



spiration and natural oil exuding there will 
mark a varnished surface in a manner that 
can never be taken off except by repainting. 
If necessary to feel it or touch it, use 
the backs of the fingers, hand or wrist, 
where there is no oil to mark the delicate 
surface. 

110. In case the gas tank is located beneath 
the seat. It will be necessary to disconnect this 
before moving the body, and before that can 
be done the tank will have to be drained. 
If any pipes hang down from the underside 
of the tank into the chassis, these should be 
disconnected, if possible, and, if not, bent up 
out of the way. This will be done easily, as 
all fuel pipes are of copper and easily bent. 
Care should be used, however, to coil them 
instead of actually bending, as the latter 
will put permanent bends in the walls of 
the tubing. 


111. How should tires be prepared for the 
winter when the car is not in use? Take them 
off the car and wrap in paper or cloth so as 
to cover them entirely. Then put in a cool, 
damp place. Heat, air and light are the three 
worst enemies of rubber, against which they 
should be protected. 

112* What is a good way in which to do this? 

Get from a tire man a couple of rolls of 
the tire wrapping paper which comes around 
the tires. By using this, a neat job may be 
made of it, while the work will be reduced 
to a minimum. Many owners arrive at the 
same result by pasting long strips of news¬ 
paper together and winding these around the 
tires. Others do not go to this trouble, but 
simply put the tires in tire cases or covers 
and let them lay. This is a good way to do, 
If there is a case or cover for each one, but 
they should be hung up if possible. 




















































































































92 


Repairs and Upkeep 


If any further taking down is required, it will be in the individual units, as, 
for instance, the engine may have had a very bad knock which could not be reme¬ 
died or even found, as is sometimes the case. It would then be advisable, in 
giving the car a complete overhaul, to take down the motor far enough to find out 
where this knock was and what caused it. To go into this matter, in detail, the 
engine as it is removed from the 
chassis will look like Figs. 33 and 34, 
the former showing the carburetor 
side and the latter the exhaust side. 

On the exhaust side, the first thing 
to do is to take off the water pipes on 
top of the cylinder, and also those at 
the lower part of the cylinder water 
jackets. Removing these is simply a 
matter of taking off a couple of nuts 
at each joint. Care should be used, 
however, to keep whole the gaskets 
at the various joints, as recutting new 
ones for all these joints will be quite 
a long, tiresome job. The old ones will 
be satisfactory for this purpose, and 
may be saved by using a little care. 

In case the old ones are broken or injured so as to 
MAKING GASKETS, prevent their being used again, new ones may be made 

from any thick, heavy brown paper, as follows, the figure 
which illustrates the process showing a driver 
cutting out a gasket for the base of a cylinder. 
The method, however, is the same, and the 
tools also. Clamp the member in a vise or 
otherwise so as to hold it firmly. Cut the paper 
to an approximate size of the outside of the 
gasket to be made, this being for convenience 
only. Hold this onto the piece for which a 
gasket is to be cut, as cylinder base shown in 
Fig- 35> exhaust pipe, water pipe or other, 
firmly with one hand, while going over the 
surface of the paper above the edges of the 
metal with the flat or pein end of a hammer. 
This will mark it the first time around, and 
also bend the outer portions of the stiff paper 
over the edges so the whole will stay in place much better. 

Next, go around the outer edge again, striking a slightly heavier blow than 
before, and inclining the hammer face so that it will strike the metal edge at a 



Fig. 35—A method of making gaskets 
from heavy paper with no other tools than 
a hammer and a punch. 



Fig. 34—The exhaust side of the engine before the 
stripping process has been commenced. 


113. What should be done with the tubes? 

Take these out and deflate until almost 
empty. Then hang up in a cool, dry place. 
If not much space is available, leave them 
in the casings, just inflated enough to hold 
the shape of the latter. Then the wrappings 
of the casing will protect the tubes from the 
light and air as well. 

114. What can be done to wheels that squeak? 
Wheels squeak . because they are loosening 
up, and if the squeak be not stopped will 
continue until the wheel or wheels are ruined 
and will have to be replaced by new ones. 

115. How can this loosening of wheels be 
stopped? By soaking them in water, which 
will expand the wood until it is as tight as 
originally. 

116. Is there any other method? Yes; by driv¬ 
ing in wedges where the joints at the hub 


have opened up enough to show a crack into 
which a wedge can be inserted. It is prefer¬ 
able to have these of steel and to have the 
work done by a wheelwright. 

117. Which is the better method? The better 
plan, if the wheels are at all bad, is a com¬ 
bination of both, driving the wedges first, 
then soaking in water. Then the soaking 
process will not alone expand the wood, but 
will wet, and later rust, the metal wedges 
so that they will cling to their places more 
tightly, and thus make a better and more 
permanent job. 

118. If levers are loose where they fit on a 
shaft, loose eiiough to cause trouble, what 
can be done to remedy this, aside by getting 
new levers? An excellent plan is to have 
the worn hole bored out slightly larger and 
a bushing inserted, the inner hole of which 














































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94 


Repairs and Upkeep 


small angle. The result will be to cut through the paper where the hammer 
drives the latter against the sharp edge of the metal. Having made a start at 
any point, follow around the outline of the part with the hammer, striking only as 
heavily as is necessary to cut through the paper. When the whole circuit has 
been completed, the outer portion will be cut off and drop down so that attention 
can be centered on finishing up the inside. In case there are any holes, these may 

be marked out and cut through, using 
the hall end of the hammer prefer¬ 
ably, because of its smaller size. As 
soon as one hole has been cut, it is 
well to slip a punch or any round 
piece of iron into this so as to hold 
the paper from traveling around the 
circumference ahead of the tool and 
thus spoiling the gasket. 

It may be the case (as with the 
cylinder^, gasket shown in Fig. 35) 
that it will be necessary to cut the 
inside out first. This is done in the 
same manner as the outside pre¬ 
viously described. 

Next in order come the breather pipes which vent the crankcase and thus 
prevent the pistons from compressing the little air which finds its way in there, 
and thus causing trouble. On the particular motor shown, these are used as crank¬ 
case fillers in addition, although this is not the case on all engines. Doubtlessly 
all these pipes will be screwed out, this 
being the most simple and more usual 
method of fastening them. If not pro¬ 
vided with a hexagon at the base for 
a wrench, a S tils on wrench may be 
used, or, in case one of these be not 
handy, a pair of pliers, using a pipe to 
form an extension if they are screwed 
in very tightly. 

Next in order comes the lubricator, 
when such a device is used. This will 
be bolted in place by means of a cou¬ 
ple of exterior bolts, but in addition it 
will be necessary to break or open the 
shaft which drives the internal mech¬ 
anism of the oiler. In a case like that 
shown, and doubtless in all similar ones, there is a universal joint between the 
pump shaft and the oiler shaft, which may be opened easily. In this particular 
case, the rear end bearing on the same shaft, shown in Fig. 34, will have to be 
removed first, but doing so will facilitate taking off the other parts. 



Fig. 37—The inlet side when the wiring, water 
pipes, standpipes and magneto have been removed. 



Fig. 36—How the exhaust side of the motor looks 
ing the piston pins at the left with locking screws, 
gine crankcase with the oil can removed and the 


is a very tight fit on the shaft. This bush¬ 
ing can be driven in place. The material of 
the bushing will vary with the work the lever 
does. 

119, When the ends of rods wear, how can 
they be fixed? In much the same manner by 
bushing. In some cases, where the rod has 
an upset or enlarged end—and there is an 
objection to the bushing method—the metal 
at the end of the rod may be peened or ham¬ 
mered down into the hole so as partly to fill 
it up. Then it may be rebored to a tight fit 
on the pin. 

120. When rod stretches so as to be too long, 
how can this be remedied? By having the rod 
cut and rewelded. This can be done by any 
blacksmith and is quite inexpensive. By the 
oxy-acetylene welding process, the length 


may be made to any exact figure desired. In 
a case of this sort, the rod should be made 
as short as can be forced in place, for if it 
stretched once, it will stretch again, and by 
making it short to start with the bad effects 
of this can be minimized. 

121. In general, the stretching of a rod of 
this kind shows what? It shows that the cross 
section of the rod is too small, and if any 
change for the better is being made, a larger 
sized rod should be substituted for this. For 
instance, if the rod which stretched was 7-16 
inch diameter, try a i/^-inch rod in its place. 

122, If a rod is not adjustable, and its length 
is not right, how can this be corrected? The 

best way is to make it adjustable. This can 
be done by buying a standard turnbuckle for 
the size of the rod (its diameter, 7-16, 


















































































96 


Repairs and Upkeep 


When all this has been done, that side of the motor begins to look some¬ 
what bare as Fig. 36, which depicts it at this point, shows. On the other side of 
the motor, a similar line of procedure will be followed, beginning with the mag¬ 
neto and ignition system complete. First loosen the connections between wires 
and spark plugs, and take out the latter. Then loosen the other end of the same 
wires at the magneto. If a bus bar is fitted, remove this and the wires with it by 
taking off the few screws which hold it to the side of the cylinders. A simple 
strap holds the magneto in place so that loosening this will allow of lifting the 
current generator out, it being necessary first to turn the motor over so that the 
magneto member of the universal joint in the driving shaft is vertical and thus 
in a position to permit the lifting process. With the current generator off, there 
is no further need for the retaining strap, which is removed by taking out a re¬ 
taining pin on either side of it. In this position, the carburetor side of the engine 
looks as shown in Fig. 37, that side being more or less stripped with the excep¬ 
tion of the vaporizer itself, which is the next to receive attention. 

In the motor shown, this is a very 
simple job, for the inlet pipe is a per¬ 
fectly symmetrical two-branched unit 
with two bolts in each. As there are 
no other connections, removing these 
four nuts or bolts, as the case may be, 
allows of lifting off the entire device 
with the inlet pipe. To remove the 
latter from the vaporizer, take out the 
two bolts which hold the Hange at the 
lower end of this to the upper flanged 
end of the carburetor outlet pipe. With 
the carburetor off, the engine is as 
shown in Fig. 38, which will answer 
as well for the exhaust side, since the 
cylinders are symmetrical, as soon as mention is made of exhaust pipe and pump. 
The former is held to each cylinder unit by means of a pair of bolts. Loosening 
the nuts on these allows lifting off the pipe, which may then be separated into 
its two components if desired. 


it is necessary to open the case and loosen the nut which holds 
TO TAKE OFF the impeller on the shaft. Then the former may be lifted out. 
THE PUMP, , Next the packing glands on the shafts should be loosened, 
after which taking out the single bolt which holds the pump 
case at the bottom to the crankcase will allow lifting off this member, but will 
leave the shaft still in place. To take this out, the gear cover at the front of the 
motor is taken off by removing the twelve or more nuts which hold it in place. 
Then the pump gear, with the shaft complete, is lifted out. As it happens, these 
are spiral gears, so that it would be necessary to screw it out by turning and 
pulling at the same time; but with any other engine on which straight-toothed 
gears were used it would be pulled straight forward. 



Fig. 38—Another view of the inlet side after the 
removal of carburetor and inlet pipe, also pet cocks. 


etc.), and then cutting a short piece out of 
the rod in some convenient place and thread¬ 
ing the two ends to fit the turnbuckle. In 
this, it should be remembered that one must 
be threaded right hand and the other left, so 
that turning the turnbuckle tightens up on 
both. Any one can thread a rod end. Simply 
hold it in a vise, then apply the die and by 
means of the die stock or handle turn it 
around continuously. As it is turned, it 
screws on, cutting a thread as it progresses. 
Use a light machine oil on the rod ahead of 
the die, as this is a case of a hard metal cut¬ 
ting a soft one and a lubricant is needed. 


123„ How is a rod of this sort assembled? The 

end is put in place in its respective pin, then 
the turnbuckle is screwed onto it a consider¬ 
able distance, and the other end screwed into 
the buckle until it seems about the right 
length, close enough, at, least, to allow of 
putting it in place on the other pin. Then 
when both pins have been fastened, the 
buckle is pulled up with a wrench until the 
exact length is obtained. For small sizes use 
a turnbuckle with square sides, for the larg¬ 
est rods, an eight-sided form will be found 
good, while in the medium sizes a hex or 
six-sided buckle will answer nicely. 

































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98 


Be pairs and Upkeep 


Before removing any of these gears, it is well to mark them, as in this way 
only can the worker be sure of putting the various parts back in their correct 
places and thus insure the proper running of the motor. To do this marking, all 
that is needed is a hammer and a center punch. Start with the crankshaft gear, 
and mark a line across a pair of meshing teeth on this and one of the camshaft 
gears, indicating this by means of a scratch with a single prick punch mark on 
each gear as near the edge as possible. Without moving any of the parts, mark 


at the same time a sim¬ 
ilar line on the crank¬ 
shaft gear and the other 
camshaft gear, using a 
scribed line and tzvo 
prick punch marks on 
each. Then, again with¬ 
out moving any of the 
members, mark the ex¬ 
haust camshaft gear 
and pump gear with a 
scribed line and three 
prick punch marks. The 



plainly in the figure on 
this page. Fig. 39. 

Take the pet cocks 
out of the cylinder 
heads, and the other 
gears out of the gear 
cover, when you will be 
ready for the next job, 
taking off the cylinders. 
This is not an easy job 
or one to be tackled 
lightly. Six bolts hold 

Fig. 39-Method of marking rte 'timing dowii eacli paired cjXm- 
method of marking gears with a prick punch so that the re- der Unit, these in the 

.1 • 1 lations, one to another, may be preserved. r • j • * j i i 

these IS shown very . qj. individual cyl¬ 

inders amount to four per cylinder, and with a block motor to perhaps eight in 
all. Taking off the nuts of these, the cylinder unit is lifted straight upward by 
main force. If a small portable crane is handy, use this as the cylinder is not 
only heavy but each of its pistons fits tighfly enough to make this a two or three- 
man job, if some kind of apparatus be not available. The valve mechanisms will 
take care of themselves, the valve 


with its spring, etc., remaining in 
the cylinder, while the tappet por¬ 
tion with its operating mechanism 
stays complete in the crankcase. 

After this has been done with 
both cylinders, and these laid aside, 
either before the valves are taken 
out or after, the crankcase will look 
somewhat like Fig. 40, except that 
the pump and shaft have been re¬ 
moved, as well as the oiler shaft 
bearing. One additional unit—the 
lower half of the crankcase—has 





Fig. 40—The motor base, with pistons, after the 
cylinders have been taken off and before starting 
work on the internal parts. 


not been mentioned. Before taking this down, open the pet cock in it, and drain off 
all oil, saving this, as it has uses, even though it be somewhat dirty. Then loosen, 
from below, the ten or twelve bolts which* hold the two halves together, and the 
lower one, which is but a shell or covering, will come right down. If done with 


124. In taking' off a rear axle, what is the first 
point? Generally, it is best to loosen the 
connection between springs and axle, the 
spring bolts first. If the spring is above the 
axle, these will be on the underside, but if 
it is underslung, they may be on the upper 
side, although generally the lower is pre¬ 
ferred. 

125. When this has been done, can the axle he 
removed? Not unless the only connection 
between the front and rear ends of the driv¬ 
ing shaft is a slip joint, which will allow of 
pulling the two apart. In that case, the 
frame may be lifted up out of the way and 
the rear axle and driving shaft pulled right 
out. 


126. Is this construction unusual? Very. In 
general, there will be a universal joint in 
this driving shaft, and it will have to be 
opened up or loosened before the rear axle 
can be removed. In cars with a torque rod, 
this will have to be loosened up at its for¬ 
ward end, while those cars which use radius 
rods on the two sides in place of the central 
torsion member will have to have both of 
those freed from the frame at their forward 
ends. 

127. How can a transmission he taken out of a 
chassis? It depends entirely on the method 
of supporting it from the main frame or spe¬ 
cial subframe. If laid on top of this, the 
removal of the holding bolts and the loosen- 






























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100 


Repairs and Upkeep 


care, this may be dropped down first and emptied of its oil content afterward, but 
this is an unhandy thing to do, for it must be brought down in a vertical line for 
fear of losing some of the lubricant. 

is the next job. This is accomplished by reaching up 
THE removal inside of them and loosening the studs in the wrist pins 

OF THE PISTONS which hold the latter in place. Holding these in place in 

the pistons is the same thing as holding the pistons in place 
on the wrist pins, for neither one can move sideways without loosening the studs 
or set screws, although both may rotate in a vertical plane through the piston and 
connecting rod center. Having loosened a pair of these studs—usually there are 
two to a piston—the piston pin is driven out of the piston, after which the latter 
may be lifted off. This operation then gives the removal of piston pin and piston 
also at one stroke. 

In the outline drawing. Fig. 41, the piston, connecting rod, and piston pin are 
complete at the right-hand cylinder, everything being in place. From the second 
piston the rings have been removed, 
out, piston pin removed, piston taken 
off, and then pin and studs put back 
in place to show how they go to¬ 
gether. On the fourth cylinder the 
set screws have been taken out, the 
piston pin has been driven out, the 
piston has been taken off, and the pin 
set back into place partly. 

This sketch shows clearly the 
method of procedure and the manner 
in which the work is advanced. In 
the matter of removing piston rings, 
however, there is considerable differ¬ 
ence of opinion. It is conceded gen¬ 
erally that this work may be done 
more easily with the piston held firmly in a vise than when loose or free to turn as 
in this case. When the job is done in that manner, the workman can give all 
his attention to the puzzling task of getting the rings out of their grooves and 
off the piston without breaking any of them, this being a very ticklish matter on 
account of their being made of cast iron, which is very brittle. 

The way in which this should be tackled is as follows: Get some thin, flat 
strips as narrow and thin as possible, old hacksaw blades which have been applied 
to the emery wheel to take off the teeth being excellent, or old corset steels broken 
into short lengths. Any thin and narrow strip will do. About four to a piston 
are needed, although if but three are available, the job can be completed with 
this number. Clamp the piston in the vise at its lower end, just below the last 
ring, being careful to use copper or other soft metal strips so as to get a tight grip 
on it without cutting or marking its surface. 


From the third the studs have been taken 



Fig. 41—Beginning to take off the pistons, show¬ 
ing the piston pins at the left without locking screws. 


ing of its connection with the clutch, by 
universal or slip joint, as well as with the 
shifting rod, supposed to have been taken off 
previously, will allow of lifting it upward 
and out. 

12 a. What is the difference if it is hung* from 
helow? None, except that it is not so easy 
to work upon, for as nuts are loosened up 
the weight of the transmission drops it down 
upon the worker. This necessitates its con¬ 
nections with clutch and shifting means be¬ 
ing disconnected before touching the holding 
bolts. In loosening the latter, it is best to 
have a jack or other method of variable sup¬ 
port underneath the transmission, so that the 
bolts may be removed entirely without the 
operator being obliged to bother with the 


weight and bulk of the transmission case. 
Then, with everything disconnected or loos¬ 
ened, the jack may be used to lower this to 
a point where it ca;n be lifted out from under 
the chassis. 

129. Does this same method apply to the en- 
g*ine? Yes, except that no one tries to lift 
an engine out because of its greater weight; 
a crane or block and tackle is used for this 
purpose. The removal of the transmission 
generally loosens the rear end with the ex¬ 
ception of the clutch shifter connection. The 
removal of the radiator makes it possible to 
lift the front end straight up, then there re¬ 
mains only the question as to whether the 
flywheel projects under the dash or not. If 
not, the holding bolts may be removed and 














































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102 


Repairs and Upkeep 


Having done this, insert some tool or pointed instrument under one end of 
the lowest ring and pry it out of the groove so that there is a clear space between 
its inside edge and the piston outer walls. Into this slip one of the strips men¬ 
tioned previously. Then without using the pointed tool, work the strip around to 

the back of the ring, finally leaving it 
so that its upper end extends above the 
top of the piston, while the lower end 
is well over and below the bottom 
groove in the piston, about as shown 
in Fig. 42. 

Then insert the tool again and slip 
in another strip, which work around 
to one side—say, the left. Repeat this 
operation with a third strip, which 
work around to the right. Then with 
three strips in place, equally distrib¬ 
uted around the circumference of the 
piston, you are ready to take off the 
rings. That is, you are ready, unless 
you prefer to put in a fourth strip in order to make the removal more easy. 
Either number will hold the ring out beyond the surface of the piston, so that it 
may be drawn upward slowly but surely to the top of the piston, where it is 
removed. When this is done, the strips of metal will fall off onto the workbench. 
They may be used to repeat the operation with the other rings. 

In practice, it has been found easier to take the 
TAKE OFF BOTTOM rings off commencing at the bottom and working up- 
RINGS FIRST, ward than the reverse. Moreover, in replacing them, it 

has been found easier and quicker to work from the-top 
down, putting back the top ring first and the bottom one last. In replacing piston 
rings, those taken off from any one piston always should be replaced on that pis¬ 
ton, but it is not necessary to put them back in the same groove as before—in fact, 
it is a wise plan to put the ring taken off at the top back on at the bottom, that 
from next to the top back on next to the bottom, and so on, thus inverting the 
previous order. 

There is a good reason for this: The top ring does the most of the work in 
holding compression, while at the same time it is more exposed to the heated gases 
than any of the others. For these reasons, it is sometimes burned off, while 
carbon collects behind it, as well as above and below it, in the slot when wear has 
occurred there. Since the lowest ring acts more as an oil ring than for holding 
the compression pressure, that one usually keeps its stiffness for the longest time. 
This is why it is advisable to transfer the top ring, which is liable to be weak or 
somewhat worn, to the lowest groove, where it has less work to do, and the 
bottom ring, which has remained the stiffest of the group, to the top where this 
strength may be more useful. 

the engine hoisted out. If not, the_ dash 
must be taken off first, which is a consider¬ 
able job. 

130. What is the hest method of removing 
piston rings? By hand, using flat strips of 
steel around the piston. This method is slow 
but sure, and it does not break the rings 
unless the worker gets careless or impatient. 

131. If the rings are loose in their grooves, 
what should he done? If they are loose ver¬ 
tically, new rings must be obtained to re¬ 
place them. 

132. What is to he done if they are loose hori¬ 
zontally? They are made that way, but it is 
possible that much carbon has collected in 
the grooves behind the rings. If so, this 


should be scraped out clean and polished up 
bright with denatured alcohol to make sure 
that all carbon is removed. 

133. What should he done with weak rings? 

If very weak, throw them away and buy new. 
If the top ones are found weak while the 
bottom ones are still stiff and strong, take 
them all off, clean the grooves, then put 
them back with the stiff ones at the top 
where they are needed most and the w'eaker 
ones at the bottom. 

134. Suppose the rings are hadly worn? If 

the wear is so great that they will not fit the 
cylinder tightly under any circumsances, 
they must be discarded in favor of new' ones. 
Some clever repairmen are able to take a 



Fig. 42—How piston rings are taken off with a 
minimum of trouble and no appreciable breakage ot 
these brittle parts. 









































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104 


Repairs and Upkeep 


Reference has been made previously to prying out the piston rings from 
the grooves by means of a screwdriver or any pointed tool. This is not neces¬ 
sary if a special tool be employed. There are a number of these on the market, 
or a simple one may be constructed as indicated in the cut (Fig. 42). This con¬ 
sists of two small and narrow pieces of very stiff steel and of equal lengths. 
They are bent near one end, both' being bent the same amount. In assembling 
these with a tight clip of metal, the pieces are set togethr in such a way that the 
bent portions are away from each other. To make the short ends approach one 
another, it is necessary to spread the long ends far apart. This would be the 
condition under which the short ends would be inserted between the piston ring 
ends for the purpose of spreading them. When the long ends are again pressed 
together, the short ends will be spread apart which is the desired effect. A tool 
is made along similar lines for handling rings with diagonally cut ends instead of 
the stepped form for which this tool is applicable and which is shown in the 
figure. 

To return to the dissembling process, with the four pistons out and laid aside 
on the bench for the later removal of piston rings and general cleaning and 
inspection, as well as the four piston pins, the balance of the gears should be 
removed from the gear case at the front end of the crankcase, as previously 
spoken of. Usually these present little difficulty, being set on the ends of the 
camshafts by means of a tapper and nut, nut and key, or tapper key and nut. 
When made integral with the shaft, they should not be taken out at this stage of 
the proceedings. The removal of the camshafts will be described later. 

represent the next point of attack. In general, these are of 
THE CONNECT- two kinds: Those with two bolts, and those with four. 
!NG RODS There was formerly a third type, which is no longer used, 

namely, the hinged form, in which the cap was hinged to the 
rod proper at one side so that a single bolt at the other side sufficed to hold cap 
and rod together. The bolts on the connecting rod big end may be of the through 
bolt type with a head, or they may be studs, which have been screwed into the 
rod wet so as to rust in place, or they may have been pinned in place by means 
of very small pins driven through them and the rod. 

In either case, the driver will find them firmly fixed so that they will not turn. 
The nuts now in use are of the castellated type—that is, the upper portion is cut 
across in three places. This makes a place for a cotter pin to lie down close into 
the nut and thus prevent it from turning. The stud (or bolt) is drilled at its 
outer end where the nut is used, this hole being for* the cotter pin. To remove 
the nut, take out the cotter pin, then screw the nut off in the usual manner. When 
this has been done to all the nuts, the cap may be lifted off. It then will be 
possible to lift the connecting rod off the crankshaft. By following similar meth¬ 
ods, all four (or six, as the case may be) connecting rods may be taken off. 

If these are not marked, the driver should be sure to mark them as he takes 
them off, for it is of the highest importance that they be put back in the same 
place they occupied previously. The crankshaft bearings are the most carefully 


pair of very old worn rings (on a discontin¬ 
ued motor) and by placing one inside the 
other—that is, two worn rings in a groove— 
are able to reduce the number of new ones 
which must be made especially to one-half 
and still get good results. Such an arrange¬ 
ment would not give a perfect ring, but by 
putting the thick part of one opposite the 
thin end of the other a fairly even expan¬ 
sion will be produced, which will cause the 
outer surface to hug the cylinder walls 
closely. 

135. What is the test for a properly fitted con¬ 
necting rod hearing? When the big end bear¬ 
ing of a connectig rod is properly fitted, the 
upper end will stand in whatever position it 
is placed down at an angle of more than 15 
degrees with the vertical, when it will swing 
down past a short ways and then continue 


swinging, but not too freely, until it comes 
to rest. In any position up to 15 degrees it 
will stand firmly. There should be no side 
play, either. 

136. How do clutch and brake linings differ? 

In every possible way; one is a straight ma¬ 
terial of even width which may be obtained 
in rolls the same as cloth. The other must 
be cut to fit the individual job. 

137. Are they applied similarly? In that both 
are riveted in place, yes. Otherwise, no. The 
clutch lining must be stretched into place on 
a curved surface, a difficult job and a slow 
one. Brake lining is simply wound around 
the surface, cut off, one end held and riveted. 
Any one can do the latter fairly well, the 
former requires an expert or a combination 
of great patieri.ce with considerable mechani¬ 
cal skill. 









106 


lie pairs and Upkeep 


fitted on the car, each one being fitted individually to its bearing pin and with the 
bearings in a certain position. Thus it may be seen that the interchange of two 
caps or two rods, or even two bearing halves, would upset the proper fit of two 
bearings which existed previously, and replace these with two which do not fit 
and which will rub, heat, wear and cause much trouble, besides absorbing a great 
deal of power. In general, the cylinders are numbered from the radiator back, 
as I, 2, 3 and 4 (also 5 and 6 on a six-cylinder motor). It is a good plan to carry 
out the same scheme of numbering on connecting rods, crankshaft cheeks, and 
other parts when taking down the. whole motor. 

comes next, the removal of which is a comparatively simple 
THE FLYWHEEL matter. This is held in place by means of six or sometimes 

eight bolts. AfterTaking off the nuts of these, the balance 
weight may be drawn straight off, although its weight and tight fit combined may 
make this a job for two. On some flywheels, an extra hole is bored beside the 
bolt holes, this being for a dowel pin, being bored in such a position it cannot be 
put on without bringing all bolts and bolt holes into a correct and proper regis¬ 
ter. In this way, when the flywheel has been balanced with the shaft there is no 
possibility of this being lost by incorrect assembling. If the car be an old one, the 
flywheel may be found to be held on the crankshaft by means of a tapered por¬ 
tion with a key and nut. In this 
case, it is a simple matter to take off 
the locknut, then the nut, then start 
the wheel on the taper, after whidi 
it will come away very readily. 

With this member disconnected, 
there remain but the crankshaft and 
the two camshafts. The former is 
an easier job than the latter, but a 
more important one; for, like the 
connecting-rod parts, all the main 
shaft bearings must be marked 
carefully and their exact positions 
noted so that they may be replaced 
in the original manner. The actual removal is nothing more than loosening the 
nuts of the three or more bearing caps, taking them off, then the caps, and then 
lifting out the shaft. 

Taking out the camshafts, on the other hand, means loosening up the bear¬ 
ings first, then working the shafts out with the cams and bearings. The position 
of these shafts and their peculiar duty is such that the cams usually are made 
integral with the shafts. Moreover, this necessitates the shafts being somewhat 
long and removed from the end of the motor in a lengthwise manner. This, in 
turn, calls for a style of bearing which can be applied to the shaft before putting 
it in the engine, which may be removed with it from the front end, and which 
will find a permanent and positive seat within the motor. Usually the front 



Fig. 43—-Appearance of the underside of the en¬ 
gine crankcase with the oil can removed and the 
gears taken out. 


98A. If the flywheel must he removed 
and it sticks? Get a wheel puller, or if 
you do not want to g^o to this expense, 
make one by using a rope, chains, cable or 
something similar and a jack. The base 
of the jack is put against the projecting 
end of the shaft, the chain or cable is fast¬ 
ened around the flywheel and over the up¬ 
per or lifting end of the jack, and as tight¬ 
ly as possible. Then by working the jack 
out using the regular handle, the flywheel 
is forced off from its shaft gradually. 

99A. What are flywheel pullers like? Us¬ 
ually they have a spider-like form with 
three projecting ends, each one of which 
has a sort of claw or ^ent over tip. These 
are made to catch on the back side of the 


flywheel, while a hub rests against the cen¬ 
ter of the outer end of the crankshaft. In 
the latter there is a screw which can 
be turned. When the apparatus is in place, 
the screw is turned and first takes up all 
of the slack in the arms, making them 
clutch the flywheel tightly. Then a contin¬ 
ued turning, pulls the heavy weight along 
the shaft and off. In general, flywheel pull¬ 
ers are much the same as wheel pullers, 
which were made formerly for the old style 
of axle in which the wheel was very likely 
to be a tight fit on the axle shaft and had 
to be forced off of it by main strength. 

lOOA. In the modern engine is the stick¬ 
ing flywheel usual? No, very infrequent, 
first because it is made and fitted better, and 





















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108 


Repairs and Upkeep 


bearing is of the ball or the plain type, located in the cover of the gear case, so 
removing the latter takes care of one of the three. If the other two are of the 
plain or of the ball type, a set screw 
suffices to hold them on their seats, so 
that in removing, after the gear cover 
has been taken off, it is necessary only 
to loosen these two set screws, when 
the shaft is in a position to be re¬ 
moved without further work. 

Fig. 43 shows the motor, after the 
connecting rods have been removed, 
this being with the crankcase inverted 
so that the bottom side is uppermost, 
the manner in which a good workman 
would handle it. Fig. 44 shows the 
same upside-down view of the parts that are left, when the flywheel has been 
taken off and only the crankshaft and camshaft remain in the way of ultimate 
taking down. 

and car, after inspection, readjustment, renewal, and lubrica- 
IN REBUILDING tion of the parts has been completed, the process described 
THE MOTOR above is repeated in the reverse direction. That is, the direc¬ 
tions for taking down will serve for building up, if just 
turned around. While this, goes into the matter much further and in greater 
detail as to the extent of the work, than any new or amateur driver would be 
likely to do, the parts which he would be likely to use will be just as useful as 
though given separately, while the giving of the entire job gives him an excellent 
insight into the various parts, their interrelations one with the other, their func¬ 
tions and methods of construction, which could not be gained in any other man¬ 
ner. Thus, take for instance the matter of removing a cylinder to replace a 
piston ring; this will be found to have been given previously in sufficient detail 
to permit completing the work without additional information, although it was 
given here as but an intermediate step. 

Some of the smaller items of car-repair work present a nice little problem 
each in itself. Thus, in such matters as relining a clutch or a brake shoe, there 
is an opportunity for the exercise of considerable personal skill, not a little head- 
work and planning, and considerable time and patience, as both these are tasks 
which the driver is liable to have at any time. Relining a brake is a more simple 
job than the other, for a brake drum surface is a section of a perfect cylinder, 
while the lining material comes in a variety of widths. The driver has only to 
select the right width, measure around the outside for correct length, allow about 
an inch where the two ends approach each other (an inch short of a full circum¬ 
ference of the cylinder, because in applying the brakes the lining ends are pulled 
toward one another; if they met, the brake would be prevented from gripping 
there) and cut off. 



Fig. 44—The motor crankcase after the flywheel 
is off, but before the main bearings have been dis¬ 
turbed. 


second because a means is provided on the 
flywheel itself for taking it off. 

200A. How is this done? A pair of ex¬ 
tra holes are drilled on the opposite side of 
the hub and threaded. W^hen all the other 
bolts have been removed and the flywheel 
will not pull off, a pair of studs or bolts 
are inserted into these, and by screwing in 
on them, the inner ends push against the 
flange on the shaft, and thus force the unit 
off. 

201A. Are flywheels as heavy as former¬ 
ly? No, very much lighter. The first auto¬ 
mobile engines were of the one and two- 
cylinder types which required a very heavy 
wheel to give them good balance. As fours 
came into general use with better natural 
balance, this weight was reduced, while the 


six needs even less than a four, having a 
still better natural balance. Sixes have 
been made without any flywheel whatever. 
A further means of reducing flywheel weight 
was the reduction in reciprocating parts and 
the better balance of crankshafts, which 
made the need for a heavy flywheel weight 
less. 

202A. Has the starter had any influence 
upon flywheel weights and sizes? Yes, the 
presence of a starter always ready and able 
to turn the engine over for a considerable 
length of time, has led a number of design¬ 
ers to reduce their flywheel weight. In 
addition, one type of starter is incorporated 
in the flywheel and takes the place of a 
large part of its weight. This is brought 
about by the rotating field of the starter 
























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110 


lie pairs and Upkeep 


The application is almost as easy, for the surface is perfectly plain. One 
end is put in place and held firmly by means of a clamp. Then the material is 
stretched around as tightly as possible and held by the use of another clamp. The 
first end is now drilled through the material for a couple of rivets, using the holes 
which are in the brake bands as a guide. For these rivets, cop])er is used with a 
head which is placed on the inside. This brings the work of riveting over, which 
necessitates pounding with a hammer on the facing instead of the metal of the 
band, which may include, and often does, a more or less brittle casting. In this 
way, too, the rivet on the,exposed side is driven into the facing more or less, 
which is desirable, for then there is less possibility for a projecting portion cutting 
the brake surface. ! 

When a pair of rivets, one on either side, have been applied at the end, the 
material is again pulled as tight as possible, and another rivet applied on one 
side, the second one on the other side being set ahead of it—that is, the rivets 
are put in staggered. After each pair of rivets, the clamp is loosened and the 
material pulled up tight again. In this way, all of the stretch is taken out of the 
material in the beginning, and the only change in the surface of the brakes which 
can come through use is the wear, which is inevitable. 



is a decidedly different proposition, although the main difference 
LINING THE comes in the planning, cutting, and stretching of the material, 
CLUTCH and not in the actual riveting. The reason for this lies in the 

fact that the shape of the usual clutch is a frustrum of a cone, 

consequently the surface is conical—that is, 
larger in diameter on one side than on the 
other A typical cone clutch, as shown in 
Fig. 45, will show this very plainly. Here it 
will be seen that the inner edge, as marked 
C and J, shows a smaller diameter than the 
outer edge, here marked D and /. 

If the upper surface, as indicated by a 
line from D to C, be prolonged, it will meet 
a similar line through / and J upon a pro¬ 
longation of the center line or axis about 
which the clutch rests. If the cone could be 
rotated about this point, either D and C or 
/ and / would generate an annular ring of 
this width which would fit exactly the sur¬ 
face of the cone, since it would produce by 
so rotating a measure or pattern of its sur¬ 
face. 

This gives the clue to the method of laying out a clutch leather, this being 
shown in Fig. 46. Before starting this, the diameter of the two sides of the cone, 
namely, C-J and D-I, of Fig. 45, should be known and measured accurately. In 
addition, the width C-D (or its equivalent, /-/) must be known. Lay these out 


Fig. 45—A typical cone clutcli, wit'h 
cork inserts, showing the dimensions 
needed for laying out a clutch lining. 


having a considerable mass and weight, and 
in addition being located at a considerable 
distance from the shaft center. Thus, it 
presented all the elements necessary in a 
heavy flywheel, and as a consequence, the 
latter could be eliminated or reduced prac¬ 
tically to a minimum. 

203A. If a knock is traceable to one end 
of the cam shaft and noted to occur only 
when the cams at the end of the shaft be¬ 
gin to lift on the valves? This is a sign 
that the bearing at that end of the cam¬ 
shaft has worn sufficiently to allow the 
camshaft to move each time the cams be¬ 
gin to exert pressure upward, and to move 
again when this is ended and the shaft 
drops into its normal place. 


204A. How else might the same noise be 
produced? The shaft might have become bent 
between the two last bearings, either through 
the use of a poor grade of steel, through 
too small a size, or through a flaw in the one 
fitted. In rotating this would cause a knock 
whenever the high part came up at the same 

time as the cams came into action. 

205A. In either case, how is this reme¬ 
died? By taking out the shaft and replacing 
the end bearing, or all the bearings if neces¬ 
sary, in the one case, or by straightening 
the shaft in the other. 

206A. Is it possible to make a shaft which 
has been bent in such a manner as described 
above, perfectly straight and true? No, this 











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112 


Repairs and Upkeep 


on a piece of paper, as Fig. 46 shows, and prolong the center line A-B, about 
which they are laid down, off to the right for a considerable distance. Then 
prolong D-C to meet this, and similarly I-J to meet it. If the work has been done 
correctly, both the measuring and the laying out, these two lines should meet the 
centerline at the same point, as B. 

From this point, with a radius B-C (or B-J, which is the same thing), lay off 
the circle H-J-C-F, and with a similar radius B-D (or B-1) draw the outer circle 
G-I-D-E. Now, having measured the largest diameter of the cone, I-D, Fig. 45, 
the circumference there may be figured; or, if preferred, this may be measured 
directly upon the cone over the old lining. 

Knowing this amount, lay it down upon the 
larger circle, as from E to G, and draw radial 
lines from B through these two points, as 
B-F-E and B-H-G. This outline, E-G-H-F-E, 
represents the pattern upon which the clutch 
leather must be cut in order to fit the cone 
shown when it has been stretched upon the 
same. 

Having cut out the leather, or heat-proof 
material, whichever be used, to this shape and 
size, one end is held firmly in place and a pair 
of rivet holes drilled through, and the rivets 
put in and clinched over. Then the lining is 
stretched tight with the clamps, as described 
for the brake lining, alternately stretching and 
putting in two rivets, then restretching and putting in more rivets. The result 
will be a neat and workmanlike job, of which the driver will be proud. Over and 
above this, the application of the clutch and its withdrawal will be accomplished 
with an ease and smoothness which cannot be had with a poorly fitted, carelessly 
cut or improperly applied lining. When one considers the thousands of times a 
clutch is withdrawn and put back in during the course of a day’s driving, it 
seems well worth while to take an hour or so extra, when fitting a new surface 
to the clutch, in order to do a job as nearly perfect as possible. , 



DETERMINING SIZE OF NEW 
CLUTCH LEATHER. SIMPLE 
METHOD OF MAKING A 
PATTERN. 


MALE CLUTCH 
MEMBER 


B 


Fig. 46—Method of laying out a clutch 
lining, using the measurements indicated 
in Fig. 45. 


can not be clone, although an expert workman 
can make a shaft so straight that it will not 
give any more trouble from this cause. This 
is the principal point, rather than the exact¬ 
ness of the shaft. 

207A. In such a case, isn’t the shaft more 
liable to bend again and bend more easily? 

Yes, a shaft which has been bent and 
straightened is weakened by the double 
bending, and is liable to bend again more 
easily than the first time. Should this hap¬ 
pen, it will be an economy to replace the 
shaft with a new one, at the time of the sec¬ 
ond bend, rather than take a chance on this 
happening a third time, which it is almost 
certain to do. 

208A. Can a flywheel cause a knock? Yes, 
if the flywheel is loose on its shaft there 
will be a dull pounding noise every time the 
clutch is thrown out or in. 

209A. How is this pounding located? It 
is easily located because it occurs only when 
the clutch is thrown in or out, and when the 
engine is checked or speeded up very sud¬ 
denly. W'"hen the flywheel is suspected of 
causing a pound, it is necessary only to get 
into the seat with the floor boards up, and 
pull the throttle wide open very quickly. If 
the pound occurs, close it off again just as 
quickly. Then if it happens speed the engine 
up slowly to a fairly high speed and throw the 
clutch out. If it occurs then, wait a minute and 
throw the clutch in again as quickly as pos¬ 
sible, that is, take your foot off the pedal 
and let it drop in at once. If the pound oc¬ 
cur then, and coming distinctly from the 


neighborhood of the flywheel this may be 
considered as the cause. 

210A. Wbat causes this? When the clutch 
is thrown in, this puts a drag on the flywheel 
in one direction, and the unit will move as 
far as the looseness allows; When the clutch 
is thrown out, this drag is removed and the 
flywheel will move suddenly in the other 
direction as far as the looseness admits. 

211A. What is the best way to remedy 
this? Take the flywheel off, and in doing so, 
find out what the looseness is and where. If 
it is loose on the end of the shaft, a small, 
thin bushing will remedy that_. If it is loose 
on the flange, a thin bushing of steel will 
remedy that. If it is too thin to straddle 
the flange, a flat filler ring may be obtained 
from a machine shop to take up the differ¬ 
ence. If the hub is cracked, this means a 
new flywheel. If nothing is found, it is a 
fair inference that the bolts or locking means 
were loose. Put it back on, taking great 
pains to pull bolts or locking means up 
very tight, and then try it to see if a pound 
will occur. As a very exceptional cause of 
such a pound, the flywheel may be poorly 
balanced, and the unbalanced weight on one 
side may have worn all the bolt holes slight¬ 
ly oval, so that the trouble lies there. The 
immediate remedy is to fasten the bolts up 
more tightly. A better plan is to have all 
holes bored out larger and new bolts of a 
larger size fitted to them. This also will 
allow of fastening the unit in place more 
tightly. The better plan is to have the fly¬ 
wheel rebalanced, and then new bolts fitted 









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CHAPTER IV. 

Clutch Brake and Frame Repairs. 

A REPAIR JOB which the average driver will not encounter often, but one 
which might come up at any time and which will need careful attention when it 
does, is that of frame trouble. This may be of two kinds: Natural sag, due to 
overloading or a weak construction originally, and accidental breakage or bending. 
Under the latter might come spreading apart of the side members, which would 
tend to disturb parts of the car hung from them and from them only. In addition, 
there would be the case of a side-frame member which had shown weakness of 
section and needed stiffening up. Thus, referring to Fig. 47, this shows a sec¬ 
tion through an ordinary channel-section side-frame member, with the short flange 
characteristic of American frames as contrasted with foreign ones, which have a 
width about twice that shown here. The fact cannot be overlooked that this addi¬ 
tional metal and the extra stiffness which it gives has much to do with the small 
number of frame failures nc 
In this particular case, 
the vertical member has 
shown weakness, and the 
idea is to strengthen it. 

The method shown at A is 
the cutting of a strip of 
metal equal to the inside of 
the channel in depth and 
the forcing of this into 
place as far as possible, 
holding it there by means 
of numerous rivets through 
the outer member. This is 
there is a very small surface to resist, and they soon fail; those in the middle first, 
and the end ones later. This done, the plate is loose and soon springs out. 

A better repair for trouble of this sort is that shown at B, where a plate of 
much thinner metal has been formed to fit the inside of the channel as closely as 



fi 


)ted on foreign machines. 

a very poor and weak re¬ 
pair. The shape of the filler 
I piece put in to strengthen is- 
such that loading upon the 
top of the frame would 
tend to spring it out of 
place, were, it not for the 
) rivets. This places the lat¬ 
ter in tension, which is a 
stress they are not fitted to 

Fig. 47 Two methods of \Yithstand this beinp" re- 
repainng a broken or reinforc- . ’ ^ 

ing a weak frame; at A incor- SlSted by the heads of the 
rect, a. B correct way. Consequently, 


How to Remedy the Most Common Automobile Troubles 


138. What are the most common frame 
troubles? Those in which a part of the frame 
is so badly bent, twisted or warped as to 
interfere with the action of some important 
unit. 

139. What is a g'ood instance of this? The 

twisting- or bending- of the front end of the 
frame to such an extent as to cause the radi¬ 
ator to leak more rapidly than is practical to 
keep refilled. Such a twist may be broug-ht 
about by any ordinary collision. 

140. Ho-vy can this he remedied? If not very 
bad, the motorist may be able to twist it 
back again. First remove the radiator, then 
note just what the twist is, where it is worst, 
and W’here least, then what part of it affects 
the radiator. Then do only enough work 
upon it to permit of using the radiator until 
a repair shop is reached. 


141. Are frame troubles numerous? No; very 
infrequent on the modern car with its big 
sections, wide fianges, frequent stiffeners, 
and general good design and materials. But 
the early American cars had very many 
frames which were too light, of too weak 
material, not stiffened enough, or otherwise 
were not up to their work. As a consequence, 
old cars seldom come out of a collision or 
other accident without some frame damage. 

142. Are frame troubles serious? Not unless 
the frame is broken or twisted entirely out of 
shape. This makes it impossible to use the 
car, but neither case is beyond repairing. 
By means of the autogenous welding process, 
a broken frame may be welded without tak¬ 
ing anything off of or out of it, beyond clean- 
at the break. Similarly,, if the material in 
the frame was good originally, no matter 

114 











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116 


Clutch Brake and Frame Repairs 


possible,! after which it is put in place and hammered out into an even closer fit. 
When fitted all over, it is riveted both at the top and bottom, and also at the side. 
Failure of the rivets along the top would do practically no harm, nor would the 
failure of those along the bottom alone, or those along the side. To make this 
job worthless, all of the rivets—top, bottom, and side—will have to fail, since 
there is practically no force to be exerted which could cause this. While held in 
position, the inner or repair plate holds the frame channel as stiffly as could be 
expected, rendering it stronger in every direction and able to sustain a much 
greater load. In particular, the projecting flange members are rendered much 
more stiff in two ways: First, the thickness of metal is almost doubled, and,, 
second, the amount of the projection beyond solid metal or the unsupported 
length of the flange has been made less by the metal added on the inside. In 
respect to the strength of the central portion, too, this has been doubled in thick¬ 
ness, while the central depth between the solid metal of the flanges has been re¬ 
duced by the double thickness added, half at the top and half at the bottom. 
In actual practice, the rivets shown would 
not be placed in one vertical line any¬ 
where in the length of the frame, but 
would be staggered as much as possible, 
so that at any one vertical line drawn 
across the frame there would not be more 
than one hole drilled through it. This, 
too, is done to preserve the strength as 
the holes weaken the frame, and a row 
of four or more like the figure shows 
would make a considerable difference in 
its strength. 

The other case cited was that in which 
a car had been struck in a collision or 
had been driven into some object itself, resulting in bending the forward parts of 
the frame apart. As the engine and radiator were carried upon these, it was 
necessary to bring them back into their former relation and hold them there. The 
method adopted in this repair was the use of a pair of bolts with a turnbiickle 
to draw them up close, as shown in Fig. 48. The bolts were each made equal to 
half the width of the frame outside, plus an inch or two, and threaded at each 
end for about 2 inches. These were put in from the inside, screwing in one until 
almost to the ends of the threads, then screwing the turnbuckle on the other end 
of this as far as possible and screwing the other rod into the other end of the 
’buckle. Then the latter was screwed out again and into the frame, but not before 
a nut has been screwed onto the rod. Similarly with the other end, a nut was 
screwed onto its outer end (at the frame) before it was screwed into place. 

With both in place, a washer and nut were placed on the end of each rod 
outside of the frame. Then it was but a question of pulling up on the turnbuckle 
until the frame was drawn together as much as was desired. Since a long bar 
can be shoved into the turnbuckle slot for tightening it, a tremendous leverage 



Fig. 48—How weak, spread or badly bent 
front frame members may be drawn together - 
and held firmly. ^ 


how badly it was bent or twisted, by taking 
all units out of and off of it, it may be re¬ 
stored to its original shape. In a case of 
this sort, however, it is advisable generally 
to put on an additional brace at the point 
where the frame suffered the biggest bend, 
and, consequently, the biggest rebending to 
restore it to shape. 

143. If a frame sags in the middle, due to 
overloading or lack of stiffness, due to a small 
section, how can this he remedied? One good 
way is to remove all units, turn the frame 
over, and bend it back to a straight line and 
a very slight amount more—that is, give it 
a small amount of upward sag. Then put a 
truss rod below the main frame on both sides 
with a turnbuckle adjustment. Any capable 


mechanic can do this, and the expense is 
slight. 

144. If, after a repair of this kind, when the 
car is reassembled and put back into use, it 
starts to sag again, what should be done? 

The turnbuckles should be tightened up. Then 
if the sagging continues, tighten them more. 
If a continued tightening does no good, this 
shows that the frame Is too poor to be made 
usable by means of a truss rod alone. It 
needs other strengthening. 

145. How is it possible, sometimes, to 
strengthen a weak frame? By having made 
what is practically another smaller section 
frame, forcing this inside the original, and 
fastening it there permanently. This will 































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118 


Clutch Brake and Frame Repairs 


may be gained and a most imnsual pull exerted. If the fitting is well and carefully 
done, the frame may be drawn any amount. When well tightened up in this 
manner, it cannot spread again, and, moreover, it cannot be driven together, the 
inner nuts preventing this. 

A frame repair effected by a driver with no tools other than a zvrench is 
indicated in Fig. 49, and this hint may be of service to other motorists. A col¬ 
lision bent the front cross member of the frame—in this case, a short, stiff angle— 
with another lighter but larger angle attached to it so as to form a channel shape. 
As the radiator rested upon the upper surface of the former, the water system 
was out of commission until this could be strengthened. The motorist had no 
tools with him other closed by turning the 

than a pair of pliers /^W\\ “ 

and a good-sized 
wrench. Hunting up 
a small wooden beam 
or scantling and some 
old wire, the wrench 
was wired to this so 
that the jaws could 
still be opened and 







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screw. 

With the pliers, this 
wire was twisted on 
very tightly, and then 
the motorist was 
ready to bend the an¬ 
gle. The long beam 


Fig, 49—Method by which a frame was , . 

bent back into place so the car could be op- gave him a leverage 
erated, with no other tool than a wrench. 

g’et^ witli the wrench slonCj while the wrench j3.ws allowed ^^ripping* the sng’le, 
which could not have been done with beam alone. The jaws were set to fit the 
legs of the angle as closely as possible, and then were slid over the upper one. A 
strong pull toward the rear of the car brought this up so near flush that the radi¬ 
ator could be put back on in a normal position. The latter was then connected up 
and filled, and the journey resumed as far as the nearest garage, where proper 
tools and equipment were available for repairing and putting both frame and radi¬ 
ator in first-class shape. This serves to show what a motorist can do in an 
emergency if he will but apply good common sense to his troubles. 


THE EQUIPMENT 
OF WHEELS, 


rims, or tires does not satisfy many car owners. In this 
there is a chance for considerable changing, some of it at 
no expense, other parts at slight cost, and still others go 
into a great deal of money. When it is a matter of tires 
alone,^ the trouble may be remedied at little cost by the purchase and fitting of 
overshe tires, as they are called. These are odd sizes, which are intended to go 
on the same rims. They cost but little more than the standard or regular sizes, 
and will take the same inner tube (although a larger tube is recomrnended), so 
that only the outer casing or shoe need be purchased to make the change. ’Sy 
fJoing this at a time when a new shoe is needed anyhow, the only extra expense 
lies in the difference in cost between the regular and the oversize tires. 

The larger size should have a higher internal pressure, but the majority of 
owners who make this change do not inflate to any higher pressure than with the 
regular size, and take out the difference in greater comfort of riding with the 
same tire pressure as in larger tires. In general, oversizes run (in almost all 


make what is practically a double frame, with 
a strength almost double that of the original. 

146. What is the biggest disadvantage of 
small tires? W^'hen the tires are too small for 
the weight they must carry, they wear out 
much more rapidly than when properly pro¬ 
portioned to their load. 

147. Is there any other disadvantage? W^hile 
running, they heat up more quickly, conse¬ 
quently there are more blowouts, punctures 
and other tire troubles. 

148. What is the remedy for this? Chang¬ 
ing to oversize tires. 

149. What are they? Larger tires made to fit 
the same rims, so that they may be bought 
and put in the place of the smaller ones 
without trouble. 


150. How much larger are they? One inch in 
diameter and Y 2 inch more in cross section. 

151. Are overside tires made in larger diam¬ 
eters but not of larger cross section? These 
sizes are made but 'W'ill not fit the same rims 
so that any change other than the 1 inch in 
diameter and inch in cross section cannot 
be made without changing rims, which usual¬ 
ly means new wheels as well. 

152. Is there any advantage in oversize tires, 
when the sizes on the car are large enough? 

Yes; they give a bigger margin of safety, 
and consequently will wear longer with less 
trouble. Another advantage of which many 
owners take advantage; larger tires have the 
same carrying capacity with a less air pres¬ 
sure. Consequently, by changing to an over- 





















































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120 


Clutch Brake and Frame Repairs 


standard makes) one-half inch larger in cross section, and one (i) inch 

larger in diameter. That is, the oversize for any regular size is found by adding 
an inch (i in.) to the diameter and one-half inch in.) to the cross section. 
Taking offhand any size, as 30 x 3, the oversize for this is 31 x 3^4. Again, 34 x 4 
has the oversize 35 x 4^. 

As oversize tires are made in fairly complete lists of the more popular sizes 
by all the more prominent makers, it is possible to make a change from one make 
which has not proven satisfactory to another which has a better reputation at the 
same time the gain in diameter and cross section is made. Sometimes this change 
of maker is worth a good deal to a car owner who has lost all faith in the make he 
is using, but hesitates to change to another because of the considerable expense 
which a whole new set means. 

In the matter of effecting the speed of the car, the difference in a regular 
and an oversize tire is so slight that no difference can be noted one way or the 
other. In theory, the change would tend to speed the car up in the ratio of the 
two diameters. That is, the engine at its maximum speed could produce but so 
many turns, while with positive gearing between it and the rear axle the latter 
would be turned over just so many turns. If the axle were sure of this number 
of turns, no matter what sized wheels it carried, increasing the outside wheel 
diameter without increasing the car weight materially or offering no additional 
resistance (as in tlie change to oversize tires) would give more speed since larger 
wheels turned at equal speed produce a greater distance of travel in the same 
period of time. 

As the gain in circumference is but 3.14 inches in each case, in percentage 
this is but 3.24 for the 30-inch tires and 2.95 for the 34s. Based on a speed of 
40 miles an hour in the first case, this would raise the limit to 41.3, and based on 
50 m.p.h. in the second instance, the change would raise the speed to 51.5. That 
is, as stated previously, the difference in speed is not noticeable. 

Herewith is given a table which shows the various oversize tires as made by 
the different firms. As has been stated previously, there is more or less of a 
standard, in which the tire diameter is increased by i inch and its cross section 
by inch; but a few firms make other oversize tires, differing from this standard. 
With those exceptions, the list chronicles those makers whose product may be 
obtained in the oversize sizes against which their names are given. This is in 
amplification of the remark previously made to the effect that when dissatisfied 
with a make of tires, the piurchase of oversizes gives a good opportunity to make 
a change of makers also. Reading across the table in a horizontal line will be 
found all the makers who produce that particular oversize size listed at the left- 
hand end. 

In a rough and somewhat incomplete manner, this represents a standard list 
of tires in the oversizes, while it may be said that a somewhat similar situation 
exists in regard to tire dimensions in the standard sizes. That is to say, all tires 
made to a certain size—as, for instance, 34 x 4—will not be interchangeable upon 
the rims with which the car is fitted, although the majority of them will. 

With regard to rims, however, little can be said. Previous to 1911, the rim 


size, the owner need not inflate his tires as 
hard, and the car will ride easier and softer. 

153. Will the chang-e of 1 inch in diameter 
affect the speed at all? Practically none. 
While in theory the circumference will be 
increased by 3 1-7 inches, this is such a small 
percentag-e of the whole circumference as to 
be negligible. In theory, the car should 
travel slightly faster, as with no greater 
weight and no change in the gearing the 
same motor will develop the same horsepower 
at the same speed. This means that the 
wheels will be turned at the same speed as 
the smaller ones—that is, an equal number 
of revolutions a minute. If the' circumfer¬ 
ence is greater, the car should travel a 
longer distance for each revolution of the 
■wheels—that is, its speed in miles an hour 


should be slightly greater at the same en¬ 
gine speed. 

154. Why is not this theory proven out in 
practice? In part, because with oversized in¬ 
stead of undersiz’ed tires, the average owner 
will not be insistent on a high air pressure. 
This means that the larger size, which is 
wider to begin with, will present a wider sur¬ 
face in contact with the ground. As this con¬ 
dition has a large bearing on the speed of the 
car, and as each very slight increase in the 
tire surface which contacts with the ground 
is multiplied by four, the total is quite con¬ 
siderable. 

155. What is the function of the inner tube? 

To hold the air only. It does not offer any 
resistance to wear or do anything else. It is 









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122 


Clutch Brake and Frame Repairs 


situation was chaotic, but in that year a strong movement for standardizatjon and 
unification of the various and sundry rim sizes was begun. Due also to the strong 
grip on the rim situation exerted by a few big makers, some progress has been 
made, but this has been nullified in part by'the springing up all over the country 
of inventors of demountable rims. With regard to the older forms—namely, the 
straight side or Dunlop tire, the clincher and the quick-detachable clincher —con¬ 
siderable progress has been made, and the majority of rims made for these types 
of tires, even of different makes, will agree in the main, enough so as to be inter¬ 
changeable. It may be added that the Society of Automobile Engineers is now 
investigating this situation, previous to the adoption of standard sizes and specific 
dimensions, the adoption of which will bring about the long-desired unification of 
the industry on this point. 


present a wide field for the amateur driver who is deeply in- 
TIRE REPAIRS terested. The common idea of pneumatic tires is formed from 
observing them fully inflated and thus practically solid to the 
touch or to the casual blow. From this many persons who know little of the con¬ 
struction of tires think of them as being solid or at least as fully as solid as wood 
or similar familiar materials. With this thought firmly implanted on their minds, 
they treat the tire about as they would one made of wood or similar materials at 
all times. This is so far removed from the 
actual case as to be ridiculous, for rubber is 
just as delicate and needs just as much care 
and attention when inflated to a pressure which 
makes it appear solid like wood as when en¬ 
tirely deflated or when handled as an,empty 
inner tube only. 

This cannot be emphasized too strongly; 
rubber itself simply forms an envelope which 
retains the air pressure, and it is the latter 
Avhich supports the car and upon which its 
occupants ride. The rubber is simply a con¬ 
tainer, for convenience sake, made with an 
inner* tube of pure rubber and consequently 
very flexible and yielding and an outer casing 
not flexible and only slightly yielding but of a 
composition and so constructed as to withstand 
the wear of road shocks and obstacles as much as possible. 

This should be borne in mind at all times and the tires treated accordingly. 
Thus the wearing portion or casing protects the inner tube to a large extent, and 
if the former be badly worn, opened up in places, or cut, the latter is liable to 
burst through these. When this happens, it is called a blowout, and it is more or 
less serious, for it means a new tube and new casing generally. In addition, some¬ 
one may be injured by the flying rubber, while another source of personal damage 
lies in the fact that the driver has difficulty in controlling a car with a flat tire 



Fig. 50—Section through an outer shoe 
or tire casing, showing the various com¬ 
ponents which make up this part of the 
tire. 


simply a flexible air bag of nearly pure rub¬ 
ber. 

156. What is the function of the casing- or 
shoe? To supply a wearing surface, to pro¬ 
tect and enclose the delicate inner tube, and 
generally do all the hard, heavy work the tire 
is called on for. It contains very little pure 
rubber, being generally a compromise be¬ 
tween the compound which gives the great¬ 
est resiliency and the one which gives the 
greatest wear or longest mileage. Some cas¬ 
ings which wear very long do not possess 
much resilience, whatever the internal air 
pressure, while others of the highest resili¬ 
ence do not have a very long life. 

157. What is the function of the so-called 
Q D rim? To make tire changing easier than 


with the older clincher type of tire. More¬ 
over, the clincher method of putting on and 
taking off tires is hard on the tires them¬ 
selves, and if a person had many punctures, 
the shoe was practically ruined taking it off 
and putting it on again. 

158. What other advantages has the Q D 
form? Besides making tire changing quicker 
and easier, for both operator and tire, it al¬ 
lows of using both the old Dunlop form of 
tire and the clincher form on the same rim 
by simply turning over the ring. 

159. What advantages does the Dunlop style 
of tire possess? For equal sizes, the Dunlop 
has the highest percentage of air space; 
some makes have 15 per ceht. more air space 
in a Dunlop type than in the same size of 
















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124 Clutch Brake and Frame Repairs 


when going at high speeds. Thus the machine may swerve after a blowout and 
go over a road embankment into a deep ditch or cause other trouble. 

In order to present the essential parts of a tire more clearly, Fig. 50 is given. 
This shows a section through a typical clincher tire, the tube being left out in 
order to make the construction more clear. At the top will be seen the outer sur¬ 
face or tread, which is of a tough, hard wearing composition, containing a small 
amount of rubber—that is, small compared with the inner tube. Next below this, 
imbedded in the lower portion of the same, will be found a single layer of a tough 
fabric called the breaker strip. This is composed of a strong cotton fabric which 
has been surfaced with rubber on both sides and the same rolled into its pores. 
Its function is to reinforce the tread, to give notice to its user that the tire is wear¬ 
ing out, and lastly to prevent, in part, what are known as stone bruises, in which 
the impact with a stone or other road obstruction breaks in permanently a section 
of the tire surface, although this may not be apparent on the exterior. 

marks also the lower limit of the so-called tread rub- 
THIS BREAKER STRIP ber and the upper limit of the outer coating of rubber. 

The latter tapers from the bead or projection at the 
base of the tire in thickness up to the middle of the top, the portion from the two 
sides being approximately equal to that at the 
top. This also is a composition, but containing 
slightly more pure rubber than the actual tread. 

In the drawing it is marked side wall. 

Beneath it will be found the fabric; in this 
case, five layers of it. This is composed of the 
finest cotton cloth woven from specially long 
fibered cotton, and is known for its great 
strength and durability. It forms the basis of 
the tire upon which the other materials are 
hung, so to speak; in fact, in the trade the 
completed fabric portion is known as the car¬ 
cass. This frictioned fabric is all laid up very 
carefully so as to overlap or break joints, thus 
no weak spots are left. The beads are formed 
from a more solid composition, around which 
the fabric is wound, thus enclosing the rubber. 

The object of these is to retain the tire on the 
rim, for which purpose they are made of a 
shape to fit the rim upon which the tire is to 
be used and of a size and shape to yield the 
corresponding strength and rigidity needed. 

It will be noted, however, that no matter 
how stiff and strong the bead itself may be, it 
is joined to the upper portion of the tire by the 
thicknesses of fabric only. When a tire is used 
deflated, as in case a puncture is suffered when 


Tadding 



Breaks Stiipa 


FeDoe- 


Rim Channel 1 


"Valve Inside 


-Valve Cap 




Fig. 51—Another tire section, showing 
all casing parts, as well as an inner tube 
in place and a section through the valve. 


tire in clincher, Q D, or other forms. In ad¬ 
dition, it is easier to put on and take off than 
any ofher form. The weight of the double 
bead is saved, so that with this form there is 
less flywheel effect in the rotation of the 
wheels because of the slightly lessened 
weight. 

160. What is the advantage of the demount¬ 
able rim? This allows of taking off the tire as a 
whole, and replacing it with another rim 
carrying its complete and inflated tire. In 
this way the work of taking off locking and 
retaining rings, shoe and tube, patching, re¬ 
placing, and other work incidental to a punc¬ 
ture or blowout is reduced to the more sim¬ 
ple and quicker job of changing from one 
wheel which has been put out of business 
temporarily to another perfect one. It ne¬ 


cessitates having flve or more tires and car¬ 
rying one of them, mounted on an extra rim, 
with tube in place and inflated all ready for 
use. 

161. How can valve leakage be detected? 

Run the wheel into a puddle of water deep 
enough to cover the top of the valve. Then 
the weight of the car will force the air out 
through the water, this showing by means of 
air bubbles. 

162. Is there any other way? Raise a tum¬ 
bler of water from below until the valve is 
entirely immersed in the water. Then the 
leak, if any, may be observed with ease. 

163. What is the remedy for a leaking valve? 
If a nearly new one, screw it down tighter, 
or take it out and see if there is any foreign 

































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1^26 


Clutch Brake and Frame Repairs 


no repair outfit is handy, and the motorist decides to run home on the rim, the 
upper portion of the tire is flattened down by the weight of the car so that it as¬ 
sumes the position shown by the dotted lines. It will be noted that then the upper 
surface of the rim is pressed into the fabric at the points just mentioned where the 
tire is weakest. This, continued for any length of time, will cut through the few 
layers of unprotected fabric, this being known as rim cutting. When this has 
been started, too, it cannot be stopped or repaired in any manner. Carried to an 
extreme, the fabric is cut entirely through, and is rendered useless except as a 
surface covering to lengthen the life of an old shoe which has a good bead and 
lower portion. 

An even better section of a tire is that shown in Fig. 51, in which the inner 
tube is seen in place, while the valve is shown in section and the felloe or wooden 

rim of the wheel is sectioned also. Here 
the tire construction previously mentioned 
is shown with more clearness, while it will 
be noted how the inflated inner tube fills 
out the casing. The fabric of bead and 
tread portions is brought out clearly, as 
well as the packing layer and its peculiar 
shape, also the breaker strip and the tread. 
The manner in which the rim fits the fel¬ 
loe will be noted, also the construction of 
the valve which appears to be screwed 
through it; in reality, it passes through a 
hole of sufficient diameter to permit it to be 
pushed in and out every time a puncture 
must be repaired or the tube be removed 
for other reason. 

Another suggestion is that the dust cap 
should be made longer and connected to 
the retaining nut at the base marked A. 
This is the more usual case; in fact, the 

theV^wo“k7"c.L“rsh°i:S;V"i'e"cl's.Tuc,^^^^^ made an integral portion of the 

dust cap and provided with wings so that 
it may be sct-ewed on and ofif, using only the fingers to tighten or loosen it. This 
sketch shows plainly the interior construction of the common or Schrader valve 
for tires, but not in as much detail as would seem desirable. 

To remedy this. Fig. 52 presents this in larger sizes. Here the left-hand view 
or A shows the valve closed, while the right-hand sketch or B presents the same 
open. This shows how the valve seat is solid and rests against the tapered por¬ 
tion of the stem permanently, the contact being made by the rubber packing. The 
valve seat, however, is made with a large central hole, of which the valve stem 
occupies but half. Within the lower part of the valve a plunger is held up against 
the bottom of this valve seat by means of a spring, this being a fairly loose fit in 
the hole through the stem at that point. * So long as its upper part or plunger is 



Vi»lve jClosed 






Valve Open 


matter on the valve seat. If neither course 
helps the matter of leakage, screw it out and 
put in another. Every motorist should buy 
a card of these consistirfg of a dozen at the 
beginning of the season, and carry them with 
him at all times. The cost is but 50 cents or 
at retail 5 cents apiece. 

164. How can these valves he screwed down 
or out? The ordinary screw driver is too large, 
and the stem portion in the middle of the 
valve interferes with its use, anyhow. Many 
drivers cut a small notch in the middle of 
the bottom of the blade of a screw driver 
small enough to go into the valve stem. This 
does not harm the screw diSiver for other 
uses, and makes it applicable for tire valve 
work. A better plan is to buy one of the 
valve stem tools, so called. These have a 


screw driver for valves on one end, a tap 
for recutting damaged inner tire valve 
threads on the other, and a die for cutting 
the outer threads of the tire valve stem 
somewhere else. Thus they have a threefold 
use. 

165. How much should tires he inflated? This 
depends upon the weight of the car, whether 
heavy or light for its tire equipment, the 
weather and time of year, whether exceed¬ 
ingly hot, freezing cold or just moderate, 
upon the condition of the tires, whether new 
and reliable or old, nearly worn out and 
doubtful, and upon other things. 

166. In general, what is a good rule? From 
17 to 18 pounds of pressure for fronts and 20 
pounds pressure for rears, for each inch of 








































































Clutch Brake and Frame Repairs 


V2S 


held tightly against the valve seat, however, no air can escape, but as soon as the 
plunger is pressed down, the air which presses against it from below can pass 
around its interior into the central portion and thence out through the annular hole 
around the stem. The arrows indicate such passage of air in the right-hand view. 
In looking at this pair of drawings, it is apparent that when the valve leaks there 
are two methods of remedying this: One, the upper portion of the seat may be 
screwed down farther so that it meets the plunger at a lower point, which is 
equivalent to giving the spring more tension, and, thus, should hold tighter; or 
else the valve may be removed and the spring lengthened, a piece put under its 
lower end to increase the pressure which it exerts, or a new spring entirely and a 
stiffer one, put in its place. Attention is called to one point which might be mis¬ 
leading, namely, that in the right-hand figure the packing and valve are screwed 
down quite a little farther than in the left-hand view. This is likely to be mis¬ 
leading when one attempts to compare the two views. Actually, the two should 
be alike in this resoect. 


Reference has been made to valve leakage. This is a 
LOCATING very difficult thing to find when the leak is very small so 

VALVE LEAKAGE, that often the air will not leak down to a point where the 

leak is noticeable for a week or more, even when using the 


car continuously. A plan for finding the 
leak rather quickly is the insertion of the 
valve stem in water, when the tire is 
pumped up quite hard. The trouble will 
show in an instant by the air bubbles 
passing through the water. 

The method of doing this is to turn 
the wheel so that the valve comes at the 
highest point, as shown in Fig. 53. Then 
a common tumbler is filled as full of 
water as is possible and held by hand be¬ 
tween the spokes and gradually raised 
until the entire valve right up to the 
felloe is submerged in the water. By 
holding it in the position shown for a 
few moments, or even a few seconds, a 
large leak will show itself beyond ques¬ 
tion. If the leak is a very small one, it 
may require close attention, in which case 
it is well to hold the valve in the water 
for a longer time. 

It is highly important in 
FULL"SIZE using tires to know that 
TIRES. they are of full size and 
sufficiently inflated. The 
former is more or less important, because 



Fig. 53—Simple but very effective method 
of determining whether or not a tire valve 
leaks. 


tire width. Thus, with 4-inch tires 72 pounds 
pressure in front and 80 in the rear; for 4%- 
inch tires, 81 and 90 respectively. This 
should be varied to suit car, weather, season 
and tire conditions. Another good rule for 
an experienced motorist to use is to pump 
them up just so they stand up round and 
full under their load, regardless of the exact 
pressure used. Since this will vary with the 
weight, the tires, the temperature and other 
items, it is a fairly flexible rule. 

167. When the tires wear faster on the sides 
than anywhere else, what is the trouble? 

They are probably out of true, so that one 
set, that is the rears, does not track exactly 
with the other, the fronts. Either pair may 
be at fault, but the net result is that a pair 


of tires is being dragged or pushed (as the 
case may be) in a direction against the cen¬ 
ter line of the tire. The result is wear on 
the sides instead of the treads which is nor¬ 
mal. 

168. Are there other causes than lack of 
alignment for this? Yes, if conflned to one par¬ 
ticular wheel, some projecting part may be 
rubbing against the side which shows wear. 
Or the driver may be in the habit of driv¬ 
ing a great deal up close to the curbstones, 
so that the tires are rubbed off in this man¬ 
ner. Another possible source of side wear is 
running in the car tracks when the rails 
happen to be set very high above the road 
surface. 













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130 


Clutch Brake and Frame Repairs 


a tire which is undersize is very likely to have been skimped somewhere else, so 
that trouble may be looked for anywhere and at any time. To measure this, no 
special apparatus is necessary, a simple variable cross or L shape bein^ all that 
is necessary for the diameter, while a pair of calipers in a large size will answer 
for the cross section. The former operation is shown at A, Fig. 54, the prerequi¬ 
site being that the tire be well inflated and raised so as to touch the ground or 
floor at a single point. If this be not done, the weight of the car will flatten the 
tire and prevent a correct measurement. 

Lifting the wheel clear of the ground will not answer, for 
then it becomes necessary to tamke two measurements, one to the 
bottom of the tire and the other to the top. As the rounding surface makes one 

right angles to the plane 
of the wheel. When less 
than the correct amount, 
the calipers may be 
squeezed over the sides 
of the tire, and when 
oversize they will pass it 
without touching it. 
What is wanted is a 
mean, in which they need 
not be squeezed over on 
the one hand nor wid¬ 
ened out to pass without 
touching on the other. 
When this has been ob¬ 
tained, it is translated 
into inches by applying 


of these difficult enough 
to get with accuracy, 
two will simply make 
the job more diffi¬ 
cult. When measuring 
from the ground, as 
shown in the figure, the 
cross arm is raised until 
it just touches the top of 
the inflated tire, when if 
is clamped in position 
and later measured with 
accuracy. In taking the 
cross section measure¬ 
ment, as shown at B, 
Fig. 54, the calipers are 
widened out gradually 



until they will just go on „£ ““correlt‘si'e‘and‘°shirpe ” “ the clamped calipers to' a 


over the side of the tire 
in a vertical plane at 


otherwise it is defective. 


AS TO INFLATION 
PRESSURES, 


steel scale or any stand¬ 
ard measure. 

the different companies disagree slightly, but the following 
(Table II) represents good practice, and may be used 
with safety. In general, the maximum pressure recom¬ 
mended by manufacturers, while it will give long life to 
the tires and prevent rim cutting and similar troubles, is a little too hard for 
comfort with a small number of passengers in the car and is somewhat liable to 
bring on blowout troubles when the tires are old and worn. For this reason, 
many drivers make a practice of running about 5 pounds under the maker’s 
recommendations in cold weather and 10 pounds under in hot weather. 

Anvone who has ever ridden a bicycle and been obliged to repair a puncture 
of the tires knows how to repair a puncture on an automobile tire. Simply re¬ 
move the casing, then take out the tube, patch the hole, then replace tube and 
casing, reinflate, and go on your way. When it can be done without trouble or 
delay, vulcanizing the patch is an excellent plan, for then the patch is incorporated 


169. How can this be done? Set four chains 
on for projections, caution the driver against 
the other matters: then if it continues, meas¬ 
ure up to see if the wheels are true and 
agree wuth one another. 

170. How can this be done? Set four chairs 
on the floor, some distance in front of and back 
of the car, so that the pair in front and in 
back almost line up with the two pairs of 
wheels. Stretch a string along one side of 
the car, fastening it to the two chai^ on 
that side, and similarly on the other. Grad¬ 
ually move the chairs in toward the tires or 
out, as the case may be, until the string on 
that side forms a stYaight line, exactly 
touching the front and rear tires at the cen¬ 
tral point—that is, just at the middle of their 


heights. When this has been done on both 
sides, measure the distance between the two 
strings at the front and rear. In addition, 
the front wheels will be found to toe in 
slightly: line up the string on the rear part 
of the front tire, and measure the amount it 
toes in at the front. If the two front wheels 
do not toe in exactly the same amount, turn 
the steering wheel, so that they do. Then 
readjust the strings to agree with this and 
remeasure. If the measurement at the front 
and that at the rear do not agree, the wheels 
are not true. If they agreed at first, but 
moving the strings to go with the toeing in 
of the front wheels has altered this, then the 
fault lies in the lack of agreement of the 
front and rear pairs. 













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132 


Clutch Brake and Frame Repairs 


into the tube and will never give any trouble, the vulcanizing process making the 
patched tube the same as a new one except for the added thickness of material at 

one point. - 

TABLE II.— Inflation Pressures for Tires. 



Inflation 

4 Tires 

When Car and 

Maximum 
Comfort will be 

Sectional Size Pressure 

Will Carry 

Passengers 

Obtained with 

of Tires. 

Recommended. 

in Pounds. 

Weigh less than 

Pressure of 

2 .y 2 

55 

1,000 

900 

45 

3 

65 

1,600 

1,400 

55 


70 

2,000 

L 750 

60 

4 

75 

2 , 75 c^ 3 , 9 <^o 

, 3.300 

68 


80 

3,400—5,300 

4,000 

72 

5 

85 

4,500—5,600 

5,000 

78 


90 

5,200—6,000 

5.400 

83 

6 

95-100 

5,500—7,500 

5,800 

90 



is entirely different, however, and must be treated in a 
REPAIRING SUR- different manner. The proper method for the repair of a 
FACE TIRE CUTS bad cut in a casing is to clean this, fill it with new rubber, 

and then vulcanize this into the older tire. To do this, 
proceed as follows: Clean out the cut with gasoline, as shown at A, Fig. 55, 
after which the edges should be trimmed up neat and clean with a sharp knife. 
Then with a small, stiff wire, wound with cotton, the surface below the cut—that 
is, the inner rubber or fabric, as the case may be, is flattened out to receive the 
patch, with perhaps a single indentation or two to form a bond with the old 
material. 


Fig. 55—Three steps in the repair of a bad cut in a tire casing. At A, cleaning the cut, at B drying 
it out and preparing the surface, at C coating the surface with cement. 


Next, the whole surface to be patched is brushed over with a good rubber 
cement, as indicated at C, and the patch, which has been cut to size and shape 
previously, applied. This should be made thicker than the normal surface of the 
tire by about 1/16 inch, and of full width all around. When well placed in the 
hole, cemented down all around, the whole should be vulcanized, using care to 
have the right temperature and for the right length of time. For this purpose 


146A. The surface of the tires hegin to 
show cross cuts at regular intervals around 
the surface. This is the cutting caused by 
the use of chains. 

147A. How can it he avoided? By using 
the chains only when needed, taking them 
off as soon as the need has passed, using care 
in putting them on so that they do not come 
in the same place as before, and also allow¬ 
ing them to float around the surface. More 
of the tire cutting due to chains is the fault 
of the driver in anchoring them in one place 
where they stay and soon start cutting. A 
secondary fault is keeping them in place long 
after the need for them has passed, through 
sheer laziness. 

148A. When this has happened, and the 
tread is cut clear through to the fabric in at 


least one place, while the cuts are very deep 
in a number of others, what can be done? Re¬ 
treading will save buying a new tire, but 
should be done only when the condition of 
the tire aside from this is good enough to 
warrant spending the necessary money for a 
new tread. 

149A. Can the average driver of several 
seasons’ experience retread a tire? No, it re¬ 
quires a great deal of experience in that work 
and a very large amount of personal skill, 
besides an intimate knowledge of the mate¬ 
rials to be used. 

150A. In general, is retreading worth 
while? When the tire is in such a condition 
generally that the driver can expect to get 
from 1,500 to 2,000 miles more out of it with 
a new tread, using reasonable care in driv- 












134 


Clutch Brake and Frame Repairs 


the various makers of vulcanizers—»steam, electric, gasoline, and alcohol—furnish 
instruction books, which tell just how long the device must be applied. This welds 
the patch into the older rubber so that the two are joined together as strongly as 
if one; in fact, when a neat and workmanlike job has been done, often it is diffi¬ 
cult to find the new patch. Aside from the looks, what is more to the point, this 
patch will wear as long and as well as the old rubber on either side of it, thus 
strengthening the whole tire and lengthening its life and mileage. 

When the driver finds that he likes to work around 
WORKING STANDS the car in its garage, or that he saves money by doing 
AND RACKS. the work himself, as well as much trouble on the road, 

generally he begins to take more interest and does a good 
deal more along the same lines. Having decided to do most of his own repairing 
and adjusting, it is a wise plan to make a lot of stands and racks for holding the 
various parts conveniently when working on them. Thus, for propping the ma¬ 
chine up off the floor so that the tires do not touch, when it is out of use during 

the winter or at any o^her times, it is useful to 
have a set of four small horses or supports. 
That shown in Fig. 56 is easy to make, and 
cheap, besides being of such a nature as lends 
itself well to any similar use, and not taking 
up a great deal of space. In shape it forms a 
pyramid upon a base which is like a star with 
four points. The latter is constructed first, the 
usual scantling material being good for this, or 
any 2x4 or 3x3 material. Both pieces are 
notched halfway through, the notch in each one 
being of width equal to the width of the other 
piece. These are nailed together, then the short 
upright, marked C in the dotted sketch above 
and B in the assembly, is fastened to this, be¬ 
ing simply set upon its center and nailed there 
from below. This does not make a firm job, 
however, so tour inclined pieces, one from the 
end of each cross arm to just below the top of 
effecdve''sTnd“whkh any dri4r" caiTmlke the Upright are used. These are shown sep- 
from cheap lumber. arate at B, but are marked C in the assembly. 

They are nailed firmly into the base pieces and also into the upright. Before 
assembling, the member C is notched at the top, either with a half-round notch, 
as shown, or a fairly deep V groove. The idea is to have a place into which 
anything set upon the support will fit so that there will be no danger of its rolling 
or falling off. When built primarily for supporting a car beneath the axles, the 
notches should be made to conform to the lower sides of the axles. It is best, 
however, to make all four alike or as nearly alike as possible, so that they may be 
picked up and used as they come, without the necessity for sorting them out to 
find which ones go here and which there. 



ing', retreading is worth while. When it is 
in poor condition, has worn or cut beads, 
weak fabric near the beads, or in any other 
way shows signs of an early failure, or of 
past hard usage, retreading is not worth 
while. 

151A. What is a good rule relative to this? 

Examine the inside of the tire; if all the 
fabric appears whole and firm then examine 
the outside of the base portion. If this is in 
good condition, also, retreading is worth 
while if the new tread can be depended upon 
to give a mile for each cent expended, or 
under a very heavy car or one which sees 
hard usage, a mile for each % cent. This 
would mean on a light car, 1,500 aditional 


miles for a $15 job; on a heavy car, from 
1,500 miles up on a $20 job. 

152A. What is the trouble when a tire 
begins to show a series of ridges across the 
surface and on the side a lumpy appearance, 
supposing that there are no cuts to indicate 
the use of chains? This condition indicates 
underinflation, that is the tires have been 
used when there was not enough air pressure 
in them. 

_153A. In what other way will this be in¬ 
dicated? The sides of the tire down close 
to the bead will be cut, possibly the outer 
layer of fabric there will be cut through. 
This is called rim cutting, because it is 
caused by running on the tires so poorly in- 





















* t 



136 


Clutch Brake and Frame Repairs 


A similar useful little member may be made the same as a sazv horse, restrict¬ 
ing the height, however, to about i6 inches and the length to 12 or 14 inches. 
For the ends, any fairly thick boards which are not too wide will answer, these 
being cut to lengths, while a beveled end will bring their tops together and give 
the necessary width at the base for a firm support. Having completed a pair of 
these, a piece of 2 x 4 may be nailed between them, finishing off the top by means 
of a flat piece of plank which will extend over the end pieces and be nailed into 
them as well as firmly nailed to the 2x4 top. If it is desired to make a better job 
of this, the end members may be nailed against the sides of the top member in¬ 
stead of being nailed together and then the top put between them. It is surpris¬ 
ing what a large number of uses will be found for these little horses when they 
have been completed and are setting around the garage handy. 


‘such as a stand for holding an engine, transmission, clutch, 
FOR BIG or similar part, when making repairs, special stands should 

REPAIR WORK, be made to the dimensions of these parts. For handling the 

body or similar bulky work, however, any well-made stand of 
large size will answer. In Fig. 57 a couple of these are shown at A and C. The 
former is built specially, and consists of a pair of ends made somewhat like the 
construction of a ladder. This done, a lengthwise piece on top at each side and a 
diagonal stiffener on either side complete the stand, which may be made very 
quickly. If this is to be used very much, however, it is well to make the corner 
posts large enough to take a castor, and then purchase four castors for this. When 



one has been obliged to ask help of two or three neighbors for the purpose of 
lifting off a body, it is mortifying to have to go out and beg' assistance again to 
move the stand with the body on it from one end of the garage to the other, 
simply because you forgot to have it placed in the latter location previously. The 
castors on the posts will avoid all this trouble, in addition to providing a means 
of turning it so as to get the best light at all times when cleaning it or doing other 
work upon it. 

While this form is easy to make, that shown at C is even more easy, con¬ 
sisting of a pair of saw horses, which may be borrowed or bought, across the ends 
of which a pair of cross pieces have been nailed in order to tie the whole into a 
wide and firm structure. In fact, for this purpose the small car-supporting horses. 


flated that they sag down under the weight 
of the car until the sides which should be 
vertical, rest against the edges of the metal 
rim, and are cut by them. 

154A. What causes these lumps and 
ridges? The running of the tire with too 
low an air pressure has loosened the tread 
from the fabric and it is floating around, so 
to speak. 

155A. How can this he fixed? If there is 
no rim cutting, the time may be retreaded, 
but in.nine cases out of ten, where there has 
been underinflation, the fabric is cut. 

156A. When the fabric is cut, what can be 
done? Nothing, expect throw the tires away. 
That is, from the point of view of the tire 
man. The amateur driver who feels that he 


must get every possible mile out of his tires 
can cut the bead off and pick up a second 
tire which has a good bead all around. Then 
he can have his old tread stitched onto this 
and get enough mileage out of this, al¬ 
though it looks bad, to warrant the trouble 
and expense. 

157A. Why is it that a tire can not be re¬ 
paired when the fabric is bad, as when the 
outer layer is rim cut clear through? The 

fabric is really the tire, forming the whole 
foundation and strength of the construction. 
The rubber is merely a surface wearing part 
and has no strength of itself. When the 
foundation is weak, the whole structure is 
weak, no matter how good it may look from 
the outside. In the case of rim cutting, the 
three, four or flve plaits of fabric along the 






























4 






138 


Clutch Brake and Frame Repairs 


previously mentioned, could be used by making these connecting pieces long and 
stiff enough. The member shown at B of this figure is an adjustable bench stand, 
by the use of four of which the bench may be raised or lowered, as desired, in 
order to take care of work which is handled best, either higher or lower than in 
the ordinary case. Being of metal, also, they may be used to make a stand out 
of any platform, whether suitable for the work or not, the lower end and shoul¬ 
der forming a support and a fastening means, while the broader foot forms a fine 
resting place for the work direct or for additional boards on which the work may 
be placed. 

Fig. 58 shows a pair of stands as constructed by one motorist, the utility of 
which is evident enough to warrant copying the same. That at A was a stand for 
the engine, the width and length of the upper surface being proportioned to the 
width and length of the engine crankcase, bearing in mind also the shape, width 
and location of the supporting feet. As constructed, 4x4 timber was used 
throughout, with the single exception of the two middle end braces. The other 
end braces 
were mortised 
half and half 
into the cor¬ 
ner posts, as 
were also the 
long side 
braces. 

The upper 
ends of the 
four posts 
were tenoned 
into the un¬ 
derside of the 
longitudinals, 

while their lower ends or feet were fitted with castors. So, while the whole thing 
was heavy, it was easy to move around, considering which its very weight was an 
advantage, as it kept the thing stationary until a move was necessary or desirable. 
As the sketch shows, the two long side braces formed an excellent shelf for long 
pieces which it was not desirable to take away from the crankcase, as the crank¬ 
shaft or camshafts, etc. This portion of the stand might have been improved 
further by laying boards over the surface of these two braces to form a continu¬ 
ous shelf. 

The other stand, as seen at B, was constructed to take a rear axle, differential 
case and driving shaft, just as they came out of the car. This rather unusual 
combination makes an odd-sized stand and one which looks funny. It was very 
useful, however. In construction it followed the other very closely, as for in¬ 
stance in the use of 4x4 timber, castors in the three legs, etc. The joining mem¬ 
bers or braces, however, were made from flat i-inch boards, their length and the 
size of the whole stand making anything thicker too heavy. These were selected 



Fig. 58—A pair of homemade stands which are very useful, at A engine support, at 
B an axle and driving shaft stand. 


sides constitute the entire connection be¬ 
tween the tread and the bead which holds 
the whole tire in place. If this connection be 
cut, even partly, the tread is not held firmly 
to the wheel and less air pressure can be 
used with safety. Moreover, this is a place 
in the tire where it is impossible to replace 
the fabric and give anything like the origi¬ 
nal strength. 

158A. What i.s a blister and what does it 
look like. A blister is a swelling or lump 
on the surface of the tire, close to a small 
hole entirely through the tread. It does not 
resemble the lumps mentioned in the trouble 
above, in that this one is an individual lump 
and will have a semi-circular of semi-oval 
appearance. These lumps on the surface of 
the tire are entirely detached from one an¬ 


other, and each is more or less close to a 
hole in the tread, whether the latter is visi¬ 
ble or not. They consist of a quantity of 
sand or dirt from the road, which has been 
forced in through this hole, and by the ac¬ 
tion of the car rolling on this, it has been 
packed in tight. 

159A. What harm does such a blister do? 

The continued movement of the car pushes 
this hard-packed lump of dirt along inside of 
the tire, between tread and fabric, making a 
place for more dirt to enter. Finally such a 
large portion of the tread will be loosened as 
to break away. Then the tire is due for 
throwing away, or retreading, as the case 
may be. 

160A. How can this be stopped or reme¬ 
died? As soon as such a lump or blister is 
























140 


Clutch Brake and Frame Repairs 


stiffeners were made from old strap iron and screwed on. The upper end of the 
forward post was grooved to take the circular torque tube of about 2 inches diam¬ 
eter, while the two rear ends were slotted down on a diagonal to take the truss 
rods under the axle. These came down at such a sharp angle.as to necessitate a 
very deep cut on the insides, but this ran out to a fairly shallow one at the out¬ 
side. The balance of the upper ends was rounded to take the rear axle contour. 

By doing these little things, the stand was made so as to take and hold the 
entire rear construction without clamps or bolts of any kind. Thus the slot for 
the truss rod prevented the back end from moving in any direction but vertically, 
while at the same time serving to hold the front end from moving sideways 
through the rigidity of the whole structure. The rounded upper surfaces served 
also to hold the surfaces resting on them more firmly. The castors made moving 
around easy, as before. 


In general, the new car owner, with a garage, is 
GARAGE EQUIPMENT, advised to construct from time to time such equip¬ 
ment and apparatus of this kind as his time, means, 
and ability will allow; it saves much time and money later, besides expediting 
work at times when a few moments are worth a great deal. Above all, it makes 
the man more interested in working on the car and in taking better care of it. 
Indirectly, it prolongs the life of the machine and gives its owner better value for 
his money, in that by facilitating repair work when it is needed the car runs 
better all the time and lasts longer at less expense. 



tinuous shaking, in addition to the big shocks and jolts. The former will loosen 
and shake off any nut unless it be pinned or held by a lock, or else be so firmly 
screwed up that the shakings cannot start it. 

A simple nut lock is the use of a second nut over the first one, but this does 
not prevent the two from locking together and screwing off as one. A better plan, 
where the shaft is not drilled for a cotter pin or the nut cut to receive the same 
and when this cannot be done, is to make nut locks. Next to the cotter pin 
through a drilled hole and lying in a, cut on the outer' face of the nut, the simplest 
form is that shown at Fig. 59. This is simply a dat piece of spring steel, with a 


noticed, the dirt should be cleaned out of it, 
first by poking it out of the hole, and then by 
washing out with gasoline. When this has 
been done, the inside opening should be filled 
up with a plastic rubber or rubber solution. In 
addition, the surface hole should be plugged 
very carefully and very thoroughly, so that 
the same old process of filling can not start 
again. 

161A. Suppose the blister gets large be¬ 
fore it is noticed, and then the hole by way 
of which it started is so small that the ma¬ 
terial can not be removed in that way? Then 
the side of the blister must be cut open. 
tJsually the blister will be close to the edge 
of the tread and hanging over one side. In 
that case make the cut as far down the side 


of the blister as possible. Also, make the 
smallest possible cut which will allow of re¬ 
moving al the material and cleaning out the 
inside. 

162A. Should an amateur attempt to fix 
breaks or wear in the fabric? No, this 
part of the tire is so important that only an 
expert tire man should be put on it. 

163A. What causes ordinary inside fabric 
breaks? Contact with a stone, so that gen¬ 
erally, a surface bruise and the inner fabric 
break which goes with it and was caused at 
the same time, are spoken of as a stone 
bruise.. 

164A. How can this break be explained? 

The fabric is strained just as in breaking a 













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142 


Clutch Brake and Frame Repairs 


hole cut in one end to fit the nut, and a much smaller one at the other end for a 
holding screw. When the flat plate has been cut to length and size (it need not 
be finished up as nicely as the sketch shows), a slight bend near the attaching 
end will give the upturn which keeps it in the center of the nut and thus prevents 
the latter from unscrewing so long as the plate is in place. The hole for the nut 
may be cut out with a cold chisel and is a very simple job on the thin stock used 
for this. 

\\ hen this is used and it becomes necessary to take the nut off, the plate is 
pulled upward so that its lower edge clears the top of the nut, this being accom¬ 
plished by slipping a screw driver or other tool under the end away from the nut. 
As this holds it up, the wrench may be slipped under it and the nut freed. After 

the nut has been taken off, it is well 
to spring the plate down again as 
far as possible in order to keep it 
springy. 

Attention is called also to Fig. 6o, 
which shows how battery terminals 
may be put on wrong so as to work 
off very readily. A shows the thread¬ 
ed portion and the nut, while the 
terminal is seen below. This has a 
flat portion, where the nut is sup¬ 
posed to go over it, and a raised or rounder part where the cable enters it and 
and makes an electrical connection. By turning the latter wrong side up, as 
seen at B, and then putting the nut on over this, a condition is produced in which 
the nut is not down tight, so that it will loosen and shake off very readily, in addi¬ 
tion to which a very poor electrical connection is made and but a small amount 
of current will pass. » 

At C the proper method of connecting the two is shown, this indicating 
how closely the nut fits down to the flat end of the terminal and the latter onto 
the flat surface of the battery. In this position, the nut may be screwed down so 
tight that it will not shake or jar loose by using sufficient force, in addition to 
which a fine electrical connection is made all around the surfaces in contact 
and the maximum amount of current may flow. 

Another thought in this matter of fastening nuts and bolts is 
this: Wherever a connecting of rod ends is made so that a pair of 
members, both horizontal, come together and are joined by means of a pin with 
a head for one side and a nut for the other, always put the head on top and the 
nut on the bottom. In this case, even if the nut works off, the pin will stay in 
place due to its own weight and the parts will work almost as well as if the nut 
were in place. If the nut is put on top, on the other hand, so soon as it shakes 
loose and the weight of the pin and head are both helping it to shake loose all 
the time, then the pin has nothing to hold it in place and will drop out. In this 
way both nut and bolt will be lost and the rod ends will pull apart and cannot 
be used. If connected with the nut at the bottom, and this shakes loose and the 
nut is lost, the rods will continue to work. 



Fig. 60 .—The proper and improper method of screw¬ 
ing on battery terminals so that they will stay on and 
give good contact. 


piece of wood across the knee. The out¬ 
er fibers give way and actually break, 
while the inner ones simply bend and are 
not severed. In this case the inner lay¬ 
er of fabric corresponds to the outer fibre 
of the wood, since it is farthest away 
from the stone over which the whole tire is 
bent. Consequently it gives way just as the 
wood does, while the surface of the tire, just 
the same as the surface of the wood next to 
the knee, sows no sign of failure even though 
it has been bent badly. 

165A. How do professional tire repair men 
repair breaks in the fabric? It depends on 
the nature, size and extent of the break. If 
it goes through the inner layer only, the 
broken part is cut away carefully and enough 


more to give a square. or rectangular hole 
sufficiently large to extent beyond the part 
of the fabric which was strained by the 
stone bruise. Then a new piece of fabric is 
cemented into this carefully prepared hole. 
In addition, the repairman probably will ce¬ 
ment in an inner liner around the surface or 
in the hole and patch where small, say for a 
distance of 5 or 6 inches beyond either end 
of it. 

166A. Is a larg’e and severe stone bruise 
handled differently? Not essentially. The 
broken fabric is cut away, making an unusu¬ 
ally large hole in the first or inside layer, 
one not quite as large in the next one, and 
a smaller one in the next. In this way the 
hole is stepped down, so that the extreme in- 

















144 


Clutch Brahe and Frame Repairs 


It very often happens that the driver has but a few wrenches 
NO WRENCHES, with him, and all these are of the non-adjustable type. Un¬ 
der these circumstances, a nut is sure to loosen which is too 
small for the nearest sized wrench to grip tightly enough for turning it up home. 
This defect may be remedied by using a flat strip of metal between the flat side 
of the nut and the jaws of the wrench, as shown in Fig. 6i. Here a consider¬ 
able difference is shown, but the writer has known drivers to turn up very big 
nuts, twice the size of this, with one fairly big wrench, using another fairly small 
one as the filler or flat strip; or, in some cases, using another nut. So long as 
some kind of a wrench is handy, the driver can make out, even if it does not fit 
the nut in question. 

A harder problem than this is to tighten or loosen a big nut when all the 
wrenches are small so that none of them can be used. In this case, the hammer 
is used, tapping a corner in the direction in which the nut must be turned. One 
who has never tried this method would be surprised at the ease with which a nut 
may be taken off or put on in this manner when the process is followed carefully 


ners, as then the proc¬ 
ess cannot be continued 
nor can the nut be 
screwed on or off with¬ 
out a Stilson or pipe 
wrench. 

Under the separate 
chapter headings to fol¬ 
low, appropriate repair 
work dealing with the 
so as not to waste any 



When the nut cannot be 
reached directly with 
the hammer, a cold 
chisel or center punch 
may be used to rest 
against the faces of it, 
as they are presented, 
while the hammer is 
operated against the 
chisel or punch. With 
the former tool, how- 


blows, and to drive only big wrench is a simple matter when you ever, care must be used 
in the one direction. not to chip off the cor- 

parts discussed, will be presented. Thus, under-engine parts, as valves and valve 
parts, pistons, rings, wrist pins, connecting rods,, the troubles incident to the oper¬ 
ation of these parts will be discussed freely and in detail. In general, it may be 
said that any part of the car may be put in operating condition by any driver, 
with a knowledge of the principles upon which it acts, a clear conception of the 
application of these and a little mechanical skill. 


ner one covers just the size' of the hole or 
weak spot in the fabric. Then, these various 
layers are carefully patched, one at a time, 
and allowed to dry so that each is a perfect 
job. Finally, when the last or inner layer 
of fabric has been cemented in, the whole 
is placed in a vulcanizer and cured, the same 
as the smaller one, but more thoroug’hly. 
Moreover, in the small repair it is optional, 
while with the big one it is a necessary part 
of the work. When this is finished and the 


repair has been united with the balance of 
the tire, the repair man may or may not put 
in a complete or sectional liner according to 
his judgrnent of the need for it. 

167A. Supposing* the surface is badly cut 
by the stone? The proceeding is just the 
same, except that the final application in¬ 
cludes rubber to fill out the tread, which is 
not applied when all the damage is inside, 
of course. 









CHAPTER V. 


Ignition and Carburetion. 

gives the novice driver the greatest amount of trouble, outside of 
IGNITION learning to drive and make the more simple repairs, as just explained. 

A possible reason for this lies in the ordinary conception of elec¬ 
tricity as something weird and wonderful but not understandable. Far from this 
being the actual case, electrical actions and reactions, at least in so far as the 
ordinary motor car engine’s ignition system is concerned, are susceptible to the 
most simple explanations. 

In general, motor car ignition is of two kinds, named according to the source 
of current: As battery ignition, when the current is furnished by a battery, and 
magneto ignition when a rotating current generator or magneto furnishes the sup¬ 
ply. Under the first named, there are two kinds of battery in common use: The dry 
and the wet, so called because the active material or electrolyte is a powder in one 
case and consequently “dry,” and a liquid in the other and as a result “wet.” 
Under the second head, also, there are two widely different forms of generator, 
called the low-tension and the high-tension magnetos, according as the current 
produced is of a low or a high strength or potential. As the different forms of 
battery are handled separately, and in a different manner, and as the differing 
magn'etos call for varying accessories, all will be described in detail. 

are the most simple form of current generator known, the 
DRY BATTERIES most easily handled, and, to a certain extent, the most easily 

understood. Due to their general simple appearance and 
construction, as well as to the current produced which may be sustained by anyone 
for any length of time without injury, this form of current generator is widely 
used—in fact, is too carelessly handled in the majority of cases. It consists of a 
metal casing or can, preferably of zinc, which forms one of the two electrodes, 
and consequently carries at its upper end one of the terminals to which the wires 
are attached. It may be mentioned in passing that this is the negative pole of the 
battery. Within this can there is a lining of absorbent paper, usually thick blot¬ 
ting paper, which previously has been well soaked in a solution of sal ammoniac 
and zinc chloride. This soaking is highly important and has a big bearing upon 
the action of the battery. The center of the battery is formed by a round stick 
of carbon, with a terminal at its upper end, this forming the positive pole of the 
battery. Around the carbon and filling the whole space inside of the paper-lined 
zinc can is placed the depolarizer, which consists of manganese dioxide and carbon 


How to Remedy the Most Common Automobile Troubles 


171. How should dry battery terminals be 

put on? Unless the end of the wire is laid 
down flat on the top of the battery, the nut 
will not screw down tightly, and a good elec¬ 
trical contact will not result. 

172. How should cotter pins be put in place? 
If there is an opportunity to put the nut at 
the top or bottom as the operator chooses, 
always put it at the bottom, as then, even 
if the cotter pin shakes out and the nut 
comes off, the head of the bolt is at the top 
and it will stay in place. 

173. If the nut is placed at the top, what 
happens? If the nut is put on top, this brings 
the head at the bottom. Then, if the cotter 
pin shakes out, the weight of the bolt will 
help to loosen the nut, and as soon as it is 
loose or lost the bolt will fall out of the 
hole through its own weight. 


174. Why is the dry battery still used to 
such a great extent? Because of its great 
simplicity and very low cost. 

175. What are its principal faults? It can 

be used but once, and has a very short life. 
Consequently, a heavy demand for current 
means a very early replacement. 

176. When i;he engine is ignited by dry bat¬ 
teries solely, and begins to operate intermit¬ 
tently, what is the trouble? If the engine 
works correctly for a short time, then misses, 
then, after standing for a short time, works 
right again, this is a sign that the battery is 
getting old and is almost exhausted. 

177. How can dry batteries which have been 
exhausted be used again? This cannot be 
done with any kind of success. In a pinch, 
the sealing wax which closes the top, may be 


I 





148 


Ignition and Carburetion 


dust. This is in the form of a powder, and is packed in fairly tightly, then soaked 
thoroughly with the sal ammoniac and zinc chloride solution. When this has been 
done, the upper ends of the paper lining are bent over so as to cover up the 
whole space, thus forming a top layer of material. 

Then on top of this is placed a little sand or sawdust and the space up to the 
top of the zinc shell filled with a sealing compound, usually pitch, which makes 
the cell water tight. As the outer material or the zinc can is metal, the round cell 
is placed usually in a covering of cardboard. This prevents the cells which are 
set side by side from coming into contact and thus short-circuiting. 

The action of the materials within the cell is as follows: Just as soon as 
the materials are all placed together, the current of electricity begins to flow from 
the zinc to the carbon within the cell, and when an outside connection is made 
from the carbon to the zinc through this connection. In this way, a complete 

circuit is made, from zinc to carbon inside the cell and back 
from carbon to zinc through the connecting wires outside the 
cell. The actual electric current is generated by the chemical 
action between the zinc and the liquid in the electrolyte, this 
attacking the zinc and combining with it to form a different 
material which is not chemically active. For this reason, the 
length of life of the dry cell is determined by the amount of 
material present, the varius forms being proportioned so as 
to have them give out at the same time. 

While the chemical action is going on between the active 
materials and the liquid electrolyte, hydrogen gas is formed 
and collects at the carbon pole. This electromotive force, in 
addition to which bubbles form which prevent a good contact 
with the carbon being made. The whole action is called 
polarization, and the process of preventing it is called de¬ 
polarization, and the material used for this purpose, a depol¬ 
arizer. The manganese dioxide used in the cell's interior is 
such a depolarizer. 

It gives up oxygen, which combines with the hydrogen 
gas to form water, which remains in the bottom of the cell. 
In tlie course of time, however, the supply of electrolyte 
becomes less and less, until finally no current is given off. 
In the ordinary cell, a small amount of additional current may be obtained from 
cells which have been exhausted apparently by making an opening through the 
sealing compound and the top of the cell, and adding sal ammoniac solution. 
After this has been done, and the cells have weakened, nothing can be done fur¬ 
ther, and they must be thrown away. If such an exhausted cell be examined, it 
will be noted that the zinc shell has been eaten away so that it is as thin as a very 
sheet of paper, practically but a few thousandths of an inch’thick. 

The electromotive force of the usual small-sized cell ( 2 j 4 inches in diameter 
by 6 inches long) is about volts on open circuit when new and in good condi¬ 
tion. As to current, it will give from 15 to 20 amperes on the average and 25 to 



Fig. 62. — Sketch 
showing how the or¬ 
dinary dry cell is 
constructed. 


punctured and water, strong vinegar or other 
liquids introduced, which will revive the bat¬ 
tery for a short time. These are makeshifts, 
however, and the hest plan, even when trying 
them to get all possible out of the batteries, 
is to buy new ones. 

178. Is there any other way in which dry 
batteries may be used again? If put away on 
a dry shelf, they will recuperate sometimes, 
to such an extent as to furnish current for a 
considerable length of time. Some motorists 
use dry cells about half their natural life, 
then put them on the shelf to recuperate, re¬ 
placing them with new ones. After a while, 
the old ones are put back in use, the same as 
if they were new. In this way, it is claimed 
that from one-half to two-thirds additional 
life may be obtained. 


179. In a motorboat, what is the most com¬ 
mon battery trouble? The batteries get wet. 
Water Soaks through and short-circuits the 
battery on itself, rendering it useless. 

180. What is the remedy for this? Keep 
motorboat batteries in a waterproof box. 

181. If the batteries are new and the motor 
will not start? Doubtless the spark plugs are 
dirty. This is a common occurrence, the car¬ 
bon accumulating across the spark plugs’ 
points, so that the current “shorts” across at 
that point and does' not produce a spark. Con¬ 
sequently, the charge is not ignited. 

182. How can this be prevented? By clean¬ 
ing the spark plugs’ points frequently and by 
cutting down on the amount of oil used. 













































150 


Ignition and Carhuretion 


28 amperes as a maximum, when the circuit is closed for the first time. In gen¬ 
eral, the lower reading cells are better, for they will last longer. Where the read¬ 
ings vary widely, it is best to pick out a set which is very close together, as the 
use of widely varying ones avails nothing, since the additional amperage of the 
higher ones is used in building up the lower ones to a slightly higher output than 
had been the case previously. Moreover, a cell which is constructed to give a high 
initial output is so made that this cannot be continued for any length of time, the 
result being that a cell which measures up very high at first may be depended 
upon to last a comparatively short length of time as compared with normal 
reading cells. 

In ordinary ignition work, the pressure required is 6 volts. , As has been 
stated previously, the dry cell gives but volts, so that a single cell is not 



+ 


Fig. 63A. — Series 
wiring of dry cells, 
which gives high 
iroltage. 



w hi c h produces 
greater amperage. 



d- 

Fig. 63C.-—Multiple-Series Wiing; Gives More 
Voltage and More Amperage. 


;nough. If the carbon terminal of one dry cell be connected to the zinc of an¬ 
other, the carbon of the second to the zinc of a third, and so on, and the zinc of 
the first with the carbon of the last used as the two terminals of the group, then 
these cells are said to be connected up or wired in series. This is shown in 
Fig. 61. When this is done, the current flowing through the external circuit 
remains as before, but the pressure is increased, in almost the ratio of the number 
of cells added to the original one—that is, four cells, four times the pressure or 
voltage. This is not quite true, for the internal resistence increases more rapidly 
when cells are connected up in this manner than does the electromotive force, but 
for practical purposes it may be taken as stated. 

Then a series connection giyes as much voltage as the sum of the voltages of 


183. How should the spark plugs he cleaned? 

Clean with gasoline and a rag. Or run a very 
thin file between the points. Or use emery 
paper or cloth in the same manner. 

184. How should the oil supply he cut down? 
After the newness of the motor and its initial 
stiff have worn off, the careful driver should 
begin to cut down on the oil flow, both for 
the sake of economy and to guard against 
ignition troubles as just described. On some 
cars, the oil pump of the plunger type may 
have its stroke shortened or lengthened. The 
shorter the stroke, the less oil will be pumped 
and conversely the longer the stroke, the 
more oil delivered. In others, the size of the 
orifice may be varied, somewhat in the man¬ 
ner of a throttle. In still others, of the 
splash type, the splash pans are movable. 


When moved closer to the conecting rods, less 
oil may be used. And in various other ways 
practically all oil-supply systems may be va¬ 
ried. 

185. What is the disadvantage of parallel 
winding? It gives a low voltage, so that the 
ordinary number of cells will not work with 
the average coil, wound for 6 volts. 

186. What is the disadvantage of series 
winding? It does not give a very high am¬ 
perage or quantity of output, hence the life 
is short. In this method, however, a high 
voltage may be obtained, so that it becomes 
necessary to use it. 

187. How does the multiple-series combine 
the advantages of both? The cells are first 
joined in equal sets, and each of these wired 





























152 


Ignition and Carburetion 


the individual cells. Thus, four cells, each of which measured volts, would 
produce 6 volts when connected in series. So, too, would 5, each of which gave 
1.2 volts, or 6, each of which gave but i volt. 

If, instead of the connections mentioned above, the carbons of all cells be 
connected and the end of this string of wires used as the positive of the set, and 
the zincs all connected together and the end one used as the negative terminal for 
the set, a different result is brought about. This is called a parallel connection 
and produces the voltage of a single cell (1.25 to 1.5), but a relatively higher 
amperage, according to the number used. The statement has been made that the 
resulting amperage is the product of that from one cell times the number of cells, 
as, for example, six cells, each giving 22 amperes at 1.5 volts when connected in 
parallel, would give 132 amperes at 1.5 volts. But such a statement is a rough- 
and-ready rule only, and not the actual output of the batteries. In practice, the 
actual amount obtained would be somewhere around 120 or less, according to the 
strength of the cells composing the group. This method of wiring is not used 
much, for the higher voltage is needed more than the increased amperage in 
ignition. 

There is a third 
method of wiring the 
cells which is sup¬ 
posed to give all the 
advantages of both 
the others, with none 
of their d i s a d v a n- 
tages, except that it 
requires a larger num¬ 
ber of cells, so that 
the first cost is great¬ 
er. This is called se¬ 
ries multiple, or mul¬ 
tiple-series wiring, and the connections are made as follows : The cells are divided 
into sets of an even number as, say, four, and each one of these is wired up in 
parallel. Then all the sets have their terminals connected in series—that is, each 
set, wired in parallel, is treated as a single battery and wired up with the others 
in series. 

The parallel wiring of the individual cells comprising the sets gives each set 
the high amperage, slightly less than the amperage of each cell times the number 
of cells. The series wiring of the sets gives the entire group the high voltage, 
about equal to the voltage of each set times the number of sets. Thus, suppose a 
group of 16 cells, each giving 20 amperes at 1.5 volts; these wired up in sets of 
four, and four of these sets wired in series to complete the group, would give in 
round figures 80 amperes at 6 volts. Actually the amperage would not be above 
70 unless the cells used tested up to 24 or 25 amperes each. 

The advantage of this method of connection, and which is said to more than 
offset the cost of so many dry cells and their terminals and connections, lies in 
the long life of the group. Thus the life of a large group of cells, connected up 


Nol 


No 2, 


DiAciHAr-i No<5 


■DiA(»Rai<> No 



Fig. 64—Sketch showing successive methods of wiring cells, which' 
bring out advantages of multiple-series. 


in series, the number of cells being so pro¬ 
portioned to their individual voltages and the 
voltages required as to give that figure 
(usually 6 volts). Then these sets are wired 
in parallel, giving to the entire group a high 
amperage output at the voltage prescribed by 
the coil. 

188. How does this output compare with the 
same number of cells wired in either of the 
other ways? It is said to give more than 
twice the current output of the same number 
of cells wired in series, and from that figure 
on up. 

189. .What effect does a single low cell have 
on a group of them? It will pull down all 
the rest, for current will flow from them to 
it to build it up to their strength. 


190. How does a high cell behave? In a 

group, a single cell with a very high amper¬ 
age will give current to all the others, until 
the whole group are equal. 

191. In general, what precautions should be 
observed in picking out dry cells? Take those 
which are neither high nor low, and select 
those which are most nearly equal. It is pos¬ 
sible to get cells which test as high as 30 
amperes, but these should be mistrusted every 
time. Others run as low as 20; these are 
likely to have stood on the shelves too long, 
and to have lost considerable strength, and 
to have deteriorated internally. Pick out a 
set of cells, all of which test from 24 to 25 
amperes, 6r all 25, or all 26, and you will get 
good results and long life. 








154 


Ignition and Carburetion 


in this manner (multiple-series), is said to be much greater than the same number 
of cells used in single sets, one after the other. A company which advocates this 
method of connecting dry cells made a long and exhaustive test of the same, and 
gave out the following figures : 


TABLE III.—RELATIVE 

Arrangement of Cells. 

1 set of 5 in series. 

2 sets of 5 in multiple series. 

3 sets of 5 in multiple series. 

4 sets of 5 in multiple series. 


LIFE OF DRY CELLS. 


Hours 

Estimated 

Relative 

Service. 

Miles Service. 

Value. 

20 

400 

1.0 

70 

1,400 

3.5 

120 

2,400 

6.0 

170 

3,400 

8.5 


This is to say, if a set of 5 cells, wired up in series, had been used until ex¬ 
hausted and then replaced by another set of 5 connected in the same manner, 4 
such sets would have yielded but 80 hours’ service, the equal of 1,600 miles’ run¬ 
ning. This same number of cells, 20 in 4 sets of 5 each, wired in multiple-series, 
actually gave 170 hours’ service, equal to 3,400 miles’ running. Here it is shown 
that the same number of batteries produced more than twice as much service by 
a different method of wiring and the use of a larger number at one time. 

Taking up the price, it was estimated in the test above that the cost (for 
batteries only) of running 100 miles in each of the four instances was 25 cents 
for the single set, wired in series, 13 cents for the two sets wired multiple-series, 
11 cents for the three sets in multiple, and but 8 cents for four sets in multiple. 


also called storage, and by the English, accumulators, have, 
WET BATTERIES, as the name would indicate, an all-liquid electrolyte. A 

peculiarity of this form is that the active material forming 
a part of one electrode is broken down by the erosive action of the liquid electro¬ 
lyte, and is carried by it to the other electrode and there deposited. \\"hen all of 
this material has been transposed in this manner, the battery is exhausted and will 
give forth no more current. If, then, a current be passed through it, this material 
will be carried back to its original position, when the battery is again ready to 
produce current and in a quantity entirely dependent upon the character and 
quantity of current passed through it. If this is thorough, the quantitv of cur¬ 
rent will be almost equal to that produced originally—that is, with proper care 
in charging and discharging, a storage battery may be made to give forth practi¬ 
cally the same amount of current for many, many cycles of discharge and charge. 
Of course, there is a small loss of active material on each charge and discharge, 
but this is very slight. 

When used for ignition work continuously, a storage battery will give about 
3 or 4 months’ service before requiring charging. When used for the starting 
current (ignition) only, such a battery may go a full year without necessitating 
recharging. For lighting purposes, special batteries are constructed now, these 
giving a very small amount of current for a very long time. 


192. If nearly new dry batteries show no 
current? The switch must-have been left on, 
so that they exhausted themselves during- the 
night or intervening time, or else some metal 
object must have been left lying across the 
terminals of the set in such a way as to 
short circuit them. In the latter case, they 
would be exhausted in a very short time, a 
matter of less than 20 minutes. 

193. Nearly new dry batteries show no cur¬ 
rent when connected up—that is, they show a 
little but not what they should. One connec¬ 
tion may be reversed, so that current is flow¬ 
ing in the wrong manner in two cells of the 
set. This will lower the output almost to 
zero. 

194. New dry batteries test up 25 amperes 
each. When wired up in a set, in series, they 
do not show even this amount. What is the 
trouble? Probably a loose terminal,, or a 


worn or faulty connection, as a well-selected 
set of cells, of 25 amperes each, should show 
about this figure when connected up in a set, 
wired in series. 

195. There is a buzz inside the coil, other 
than the buzz of the contact breaker. Prob¬ 
ably a short circuit in the coil windings or 
connections. 

196. If the former, what can be done? The 

coil can be dried out close to a fire or in any 
other warm place. Aside from this and in¬ 
specting it for loose pieces of metal which 
might have caused the trouble, the amateur 
can do little except replace it with a new one. 

197. How can trouble of this kind be proven 
definitely? Aside from the buzz mentioned, 
which comes from within the coil, the engine 
will be noted to run poorly on it. This can 
be tested by borrowing a coil and putting in 









4 




■ 


» 



5 

i 






<< 


* « 




:;cr . ■•: 


,. 


• •<*- 




f* I' 


< V ' 





156 


Ignition and Carhuretion 


Gas Vent 


Handle 


Terminal Terminal 


Terminal Nut 


Cover 




Cell 

^ ^ ^ Partition 

Hardjtubber Battery Rubber 

, ‘ Three Cell iiiillii|(r:'^i>^' Separator 

Glass uar Negative Plate Positive Plate 

Wood Separator 

Fig.* 65—Wet or storage cell construction. At left, simple 
primary cell. At right, three-part or 6-volt battery. 


Lead Plate Roll 


Storage or wet batteries are of two kinds: The ordinary^ simple cell, such as 
IS used for electric bells in houses, and the usual ignition battery for motor car 
work, which contains three cells (ordinarily). The former is illustrated at A, 
•Fig. 65, and consists of two sheets of lead, rolled to form spirals, and separated 
top and bottom by insulating bands of hard rubber or fiber. The electrolyte is 
dilute sulphuric acid. After 
this has been charged by 
passing a current through it, 
the nature of the lead plates 
will have been changed so 
that they are different sub¬ 
stances, and a chemical ac¬ 
tion will be set up which will 
produce the desired current. 

Lead is also the material 
commonly used for batteries 
such as that shown at B, Fig. 

65. While this appears like 
one, it really is three cells, 
and contains three positive 
and three negative plates. 

The plates are made of sheet 
lead, with perforations or pockets, which are filled with a paste made from oxide 
of lead. The plate with its pockets filled is then treated chemically so that the 
paste is set firmly, while its chemical composition is changed at the same time. 
In its final form, the positive plate is filled with dioxide of lead, both this and the 
plate having a brown or chocolate color. The plate forming the negative electrode 
is so treated as to remove the oxygen from the paste material, leaving metallic 
lead in a spongy form with a characteristic lead color. 

With this form of cell, the electrolyte is dilute sulphuric acid, which must 
cover the plates completely. When charged and ready to begin generating cur¬ 
rent, such a cell will deliver about 2.2 volts on open circuit. The amperage will 
vary with the number of cells united to form the battery; but, speaking generally, 
wet or storage batteries are rated by ampere-hours. An ampere flowing for one 
hour, or 2 amperes for one-half hour, or ^ ampere for two hours each consti¬ 
tutes an ampere-hour. 

In a battery of this kind, the specific gravity of the electrolyte must be kept 
up to 1.205, or as close to 1.2 as is practical. If it falls below this, more acid of 
the right content should be added when the level is low. This measurement is 
made with an instrument called the hydrometer, an instrument resembling a ther¬ 
mometer except that it is much larger and longer, and has a very large bulb at 
its lower end which is dipped in the liquid. 

For ignition work, the three- and four-cell forms are used mainly. The gen¬ 
eral descriptions of these are given in the table below, which while it describes the 
product of one manufacturer, covers practically all of the makes as to size and 
output. 


the place of the regular one. By interchang¬ 
ing the two and noting how the engine runs, 
the defective one can be shown up very effec¬ 
tively. 

198. What good does drying or heating the 
coil do? If the internal trouble is due to 
water which has gotten into the interior by 
accident, heating or drying will drive this 
out. If this was the only thing causing the 
trouble, and the coil is dried enough to drive 
all of the moisture out, it will be as good as 
new after the treatment. In such heating, 
however, care should be taken not to heat it 
too much, as it is possible to melt the insula¬ 
tion of the wires, or between the two sets of 
wiring, thus causing more trouble than be¬ 
fore, and practically ruining the coil. 


199. There is a tiny or intermittent buzz at 
the contact breaker, quite different from the 
correct noise made when breaking the circuit. 

This probably represents a pitted coil point. 
In order to withstand the heat generated 
when the spark passes from point to point, 
these are faced with platinum or a platinum- 
iririum compound. If there is a flaw or weak 
spot in this, a pit or small hole wdll develop. 
Sometimes the entire surface will be covered 
with these tiny holes. Since the surface is 
not plane and smooth, a poor spark results 
from the poor contact which such surfaces 
make.' To remedy the different noise, which 
indicates a poor spark at the plugs, the points 
must be filed to a good even surface. 





























































































158 


Ignition and Carhuretion 


SIZE AND CAPACITY OF IGNITION BATTERIES. 


, of Cells. 

(All these 

Volts. 

are 9 inches high and 6-)4 inches wide.) 

Ampere-Hours 

Capacity. • Inches. 

Pounds. 

3 

6 

40 

7 7/16 

25^ 

4 

8 

40 

9 5/16 

34 

3 

6 

60 

9 15/16 

344 ^ 

4 

8 

60 

12 9/16 

47>4 

3 

6 

80 

11 13/16 

46 

4 

8 

80 

15 1/16 

61 

3 

6 

100 

14 13/16 

551^ 

4 

8 

ioo 

19 1/16 

74 


More recently, 6-120, 8-120, 6-140 and 8-140 batteries have been produced in 
response to a wide demand, but the dimensions and weights of these are not 
available. 

The chemical changes going on when a storage battery is giving off current 
are as follows: The dioxide of lead is changed partly to monoxide of lead by the 
loss of part of its oxygen. The metallic lead also is partly changed to monoxide 
by the addition of oxygen. The sulphuric acid is reduced by decomposition into 
sulphur and water, so that the electrolyte becomes weaker and has a lower specific 
gravity. During the charging process, the above reactions are reversed and the 
original conditions are restored, with the exception of the sulphuric acid, which 
must be added to from time to time in order to maintain the most efficient strength 
and the correct specific gravity. 

differs from the lead cell, 
just described, in a num¬ 
ber of important particu¬ 
lars. First, the active 
material is iron oxide, which is used with 
nickel and iron. Second, the electrolyte is a 
weak alkali instead of a strong acid. Third, 


CELL COVE.R 


THE EDISON 
BATTERY 


STuri 
eoxv 


the cell is so constructed as to be foolproof 
throughout, even in the matter of charging 
or discharging, presence of or lack of elec¬ 
trolyte, and other matters which are vital 
with the lead form. For these reasons, the 
Edison battery is being adopted widely, 
despite a higher first cost. 

The pressure of the current generated 
by either a dry or a storage battery being 
so low, 6 volts on the average, and never 
above 10, while a considerable amount of 
pressure is needed to make the spark jump 
across the air gap, some means of increas¬ 
ing the pressure is necessary. This is 
found in the spark coil, which is in effect 
a transformer, changing a low-tension pi'oof- 
current into one with a pressure of several thousand volts. 



66—Construction and components of the 
Edis 9 n battery, which uses no acid and is fool- 


200. How is this done best? By using a 
very fine, fiat jeweler’s file, and using extreme 
care to get the surface exactly parallel with 
each other, and each one as perfect as pos¬ 
sible. In doing this work, file away as little 
material as possible. If much is filed away;, 
the points will stand hut one or two dress¬ 
ings, as not much of it is used on account of 
its high cost. 

201. Can a tool he made for doing this work 
more accurately? Yes, and this represents 
the best way of doing it. A board should be 
constructed with a place at the top into which 
the contact point can be screwed or fitted 
tightly. Then there should be a place at the 
bottom into which a fine oilstone or very fine 


file can be set. Then there should be a means 
of moving the top so that the contact point 
passes over the file or oilstone, but in such a 
way that it cannot possibly meet it except at 
a perfect right angle. With a device of this 
kind, it is possible to put in the point, work 
it over the stone and be sure of getting a 
perfectly accurate surface. 

202. Wliat causes weak or uneven running 
on a magneto system? Dirty contact blades 
in the contact breaker, or pitting or wear of 
the blades. In some very few cases it may 
be caused by the use of inferior material for 
the contact blades or other parts. 

203. How can these troubles be remedied? 

By cleaning or filing down to an even, per- 















































































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160 


Ignition and Carhuretion 


in its simplest form, consists of about 200 to 300 turns of 
A SPARK COIL, comparatively thick copper (or iron) wire, insulated, and 

wound on or around a soft iron core piece, with some 1,500 
to 2,000 turns of a very thin copper wire wound over the thick, having, however, 
a form of insulation between the two, in addition to the insulation of the wires 
themselves. 

The first layer of thick wire is called 
the primary winding, and receives the 
low tension current from the battery. 

For this purpose, it usually is made 
complete in itself, and the two ends are 
carried out to the outside for battery 
connections. In Fig. 67, and usually 
in electrical work, the primary wind¬ 
ing of a coil is shown by means of a 
heavy line. The upper or outer layer 
of fine wire is called the secondary 
winding, is represented by a fine line 
in Fig. 67 and generally, and is car¬ 
ried out with two outside terminals, 
one for the spark plug, and the other 
for a ground or other connection. 

When a low-tension current is 
passed through the primary windings 
and then suddenly broken, a current of 
extremely high tension (upward of 
several thousand volts) is generated in 
the secondary windings, sufficient to 
jump across the air gap at the spark 
plug which forms the break or gap in 
the secondary circuit. This spark ap¬ 
pears only after the primary circuit has 
been interrupted, and only when it has been interrupted suddenly, no spark appear¬ 
ing either at the time of closing or when the primary circuit is opened gradually. 

The action within the coil is as follows ' The current through the primary 
winding magnetizes the iron core. As this current ceases, when the primary cir¬ 
cuit is broken, the core loses this magnetism very rapidly. This rapid decrease of 
what is known as magnetic flux induces electromotive force in the secondary, but 
because of the circuit being open at the spark gap, this induced electromotive 
force continues to build up pressure in the secondary until it is sufficient to jump 
the gap, or, in electrical terms, until the difference of potential between the two 
sides of the spark gap causes a spark to pass across. 



Fig. 67—Components of the coil and other parts 
of the jump spark system, showing operation. 


in a spark coil is nothing but a steel spring, employed to 
THE TREMBLER break the primary circuit automatically. It consists, as Fig. 

67 shows, of the trembler blade, which is the steel spring, 
and carries at its lower side a small piece of soft iron or other metal, while on 


fectly flat surface, or replacing' with good new 
parts respectively. 

204. What causes an automobile to smoke? 

Imperfect combustion of the fuel, too much 
lubricant, or a combination of the two. 

205. How can these be detected? By the 

color of the smoke which issues from the ex¬ 
haust pipe. A very dark brown color indi¬ 
cates an excess of lubricant, while a light 
gray but very noticeable smoke denotes fuel 
going to waste. Ordinarily the exhaust should 
be colorless outdoors. 

206. How can the excess of fuel be cut 
down? By opening the auxiliary air valve so 
as to give the carburetor more air, and thus 


vaporize a greater amount of fuel, instead of 
letting it go to waste. An alternate method 
is to screw the needle valve which supplies 
the vaporizer with fuel down so that not as 
much will flow through. 

207. Which method is preferable? It de¬ 
pends upon the nature of the engine and 
work being done. For hard, heavy or fast driv¬ 
ing, it would be better to give the motor 
more air and let the fuel stand. On the other 
hand, for ordinary city driving, or similar 
work over good roads or pavements at moder¬ 
ate speeds, it would be better to cut down on 
the fuel. This not only saves fuel and thus 







































































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16 S 


Ignition and Carburetion 


the upper surface there is a platinum contact point. Above this there is a fixed 
member, through which the primary current flows and which carries on its lower 
side another platinura contact point so as to make an exact contact with the one 
on the upper side of the movable trembler blade. In actual practice, it is not 
possible to make all of the springs alike, nor do all ignition systems work best on 
the same amount of movement, consequently the fixed contact point is made in the 
form of a fixed bridge with a screw at the center which may be adjusted to suit con-' 
ditions, its lower end having a platinum tip to match the contact on the trembler. 

The action of the trembler is as follows : When the low-tension current from 
the battery passes through the fixed contact point and the soft iron core, as the 
latter builds up its magnetism, the free end of the trembler is attracted to the end 
of the core and away from the fixed arm or contact point on the end of the 
vibrator screw. When the magnetism reaches its maximum, the two are pulled 
apart, which breaks the primary circuit and interrupts the flow of current through 
the primary windings. As soon as this current stops flowing, the core loses its 
magnetism as explained previously, and the free end of the trembler is no longer 
held close by it. . Consequently, the spring draws it back to its original position, 
in which its contact point meets that of the fixed trembler screw, closing the 
primary circuit again. This same operation is repeated over and over again, as 
long as there is current from the battery. Each time the moving of the trembler 
arm breaks the primary circuit, a spark is produced at the spark plug, as previ¬ 
ously explained in detail. 

The trembler spring is made strong enough so that its free end does not 
touch the end of the core, as it would cling there and stop the operation of the 
device. Either that or a non-magnetic substance, as rubber, wood or brass, is 
used to check its movement before it touches the core. 

This arrangement gives the automatic action of breaking the circuit fre¬ 
quently and the subsequent closing of the same as soon as the spark shall have 
been produced. The adjustability of the screw arrangement allows of varying the 
amount of the trembler movement, which in turn determines the quickness of the 
break and also the speed or rather interval of time in which it is re-established. 
The former fixes to some extent the character of the spark, since the quicker the 
break the better the spark, while the latter is necessitated by the modern high 
speeds of multi-cylinder engines. 

Thus in a four-cylinder motor, turning over at the rate of 1,500 revolutions 
a minute, there is an explosion every 1/50 of a second. Considering the lag in 
building up the current, in making the break, and re-establishing the circuit, it 
would appear that about one-third of this time should be given to each operation, 
or 1/150 of a second to each. Considering this extremely short interval of time, 
it is important to have the vibrator screw adjusted so as to give the maximum pos¬ 
sible speed of movement. There is a second point to consider in adjusting this 
member, namely, the economy of current. Thus, the vibrators may be adjusted to 
lake a small or a large amount of current and still give satisfactory service at both 
positions. The amount of current drawn is usually considered to be but ^ 
ampere when adjusted correctly. If more than this is used, the adjustment should 
be changed. 


money, but eliminates the smoking nuisance 
as well. 

208. What other benefits result from mak¬ 
ing these changes? In any case in which the 
motor is smoking badly there is sure to be 
much excess carbon in the cylinders, due to 
an excess of oil or fuel as the case may be. 
This will settle on cylinder heads, valves, 
valve caps, spark plugs, or other parts of the 
interior and cause missing. Ultimately smok¬ 
ing, if long continued, will mean overhauling 
the engine at an early date. 

209. What is the use of the air valve? It 
supplies a method of adding air to the partly 
vaporized fuel, and a variable one as well, so 
that the amount taken in may be changed to 
suit the atmospheric or other conditions. 


210. Does it ever get out of order and cause 
trouble? Yes, sometimes through lack of 
sufficient tension in springs or loose nuts, or 
other fastening means, the adjustment varies 
so as to throw out the perfect running of the 
motor, causes missing and possibly stoppage. 
The spring holding the air valve on its seat 
and against the pressure of which the engine 
suction opens the valve and draws in the air 
may break. This will hold the valve open all 
the time, with the result that the motor gets 
too much air. 

211. How much air is necessary ordinarily? 

The best results are obtained when the vol¬ 
ume of air is about 7 or 8 times the volume 
of the gasoline vapor. When the ratio gets 
below 4 to 1, it is too rich, and will cause 





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164 


Ignition and Carhuretion 


is another component of the vibrator coil as compared 
THE CONDENSER with a non-vibrator form. During the first part of the 

break in the primary circuit caused by the downward 
movement of the vibrator spring, the tendency is for the current to keep flowing 
across this gap and thus burn aWay the contact points. When a condenser is 
used and wired in parallel with the system, this excess current flows to the con¬ 
denser and charges that, this extra amount of current being saved in a sense; for, 
when the circuit is broken, this current flows back through the primary. On 
account of the momentum of the discharge current, the condenser becomes 
charged again, but to a less extent and with a reversed polarity. Then it dis¬ 
charges in the opposite direction, and continues to oscillate from one direction to 
the other. This produces a series of small sparks at the trembler contacts, which 
is considered as a single spark and is used by drivers as an indication of the 
action of the system, according as it is strong or weak, quick or slow. 


is the other member necessary in a system of this kind, this being 
THE TIMER a member which has a rotating metal shaft, driven positively from 
the engine. In addition, it must carry a moving cam which makes 
a contact with a metal contact segment set into the inner surface of the timer, the 
cam being insulated from the timer case at all other points of its revolution. In 
the sketch. Fig. 67, but one of these is shown, as would be the case for a single¬ 
cylinder engine. With a two-cylinder motor, there would have to be two; with a 
four, four; with a six, six; and so on. The timer is set to turn at one-half the 
engine speed, consequently the cam makes a full rotation and contacts with all 
segments in two revolutions of the crankshaft. 

' When this contact is made, current may flow through the coil from the 
battery, but not until then, for the timer is a part of the primary circuit, and, as 
just pointed out, the case is insulated from the shaft, and current can flow only 
at the contact points. This being made, the current flows, builds up the circuit, 
attracts the trembler, which moves downward and breaks the circuit, causing the 
generation of the secondary circuit, which jumps the gap at the spark plug, this 
being the spark which ignites the compressed gases in the cylinder. When it is 
desired to run the engine faster, this spark must occur at an earlier point in the 
stroke, and when the driver wants to turn his motor over still more slowly, it 
must occur at a later point. For these reasons the casing of the timer is made 
movable, and is connected to the throttle lever, which the driver moves with his 
finger. When an advance is desired, the casing of the timer is moved against the 
direction of rotation—that is, toward the rotating cam—so that it meets the latter 
at an earlier point than would be the case otherwise. 

One thing that usually is puzzling to the amateur, studying out ignition 
systems, as shown in Fig. 67, for instance, is that neither the primary nor the 
secondary circuit is completed. This is explained by the fact that the ground 
forms the missing side. Ordinarily this is not shown as connected, since every¬ 
one knows that given two connections from dififerent parts to the same metal bar 
or piece is the same as connecting the parts together directly. In the diagrams, 
it is understood that these grounds are connections to metal parts of the framed 


smoking, previously mentioned. When more 
air is admitted, the engine will run and act 
all right up to 15 to 1, beyond which it will 
not operate. If more than 15 parts of air be 
admitted to each 1 of gasoline vapor, the mo¬ 
tor will not operate. 

212. In what other way can too much air 
reach the motor? Through leaky joints in 
the carburetor connections or inlet pipe, 
through a pin hole or crack in the inlet pipe, 
or through a leaking inlet valve. This gives 
one clue to a sudden stoppage of the motor 
at a time when it has been running well. Any 
one of these things may have happened, as 
for instance some dirt may have held the in¬ 
let valve off its seat, so that air leaked in in 
that way. 


213. What causes the hissing sound in the 
air valve of a carburetor? The gases being 
drawn over the surface of the valve This 
cannot be stopped, but sometime^ it can be 
quieted by changing the setting of the valve 
slightly. 

214. What causes a hissing or popping noise 
in the carburetor or inlet pipe? The trouble 
known as a “blowback.” That is, the blowing 
back past the inlet valve of gases, Some- 
Umes this occurs after the gases in the cyl¬ 
inder have been exploded, so that a flame may 
spurt out of the air pipe of the carburetor. 

215. "W^at could cause this? A pitted inlet 
valve, grit under the valve, a broken valve, de¬ 
fective or broken valve, spring valve, stuck in 





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166 


Ignition and Carhuretion 


which latter forms the closing part of the circuits, the primary in one instance and 
the secondary in the other. In the figure, these ground connections are indicated 
by means of dotted lines to make the whole thing more clear, dotted line A indi¬ 
cating the connection and flow of current for the primary circuit, and dotted line 
B indicating the same for the secondary circuit. 





form an important part of the ignition system, and an indis- 
SPARK PLUGS pensable one. They consist broadly of a central metal point of 
electrode which carries at its upper end a terminal for wire 
connections, an outer metal shell which is screwed into the cylinder, and, as the 
latter is metal, also makes an electrical connection between the two, and an insu¬ 
lating material which separates the two. From the outer metal shell a second 
electrode extends down to meet the two, these being set so that an opening of 
approximately 1732 inch exists between their tips. This is about the correct 

sparking distance for batteries and one- 
half this for magnetos, as more width 
makes too big an air gap, renders it diffi¬ 
cult to get a proper spark and consumes 
too much current. On the other hand, too 
small a gap allows the current to flow too 
easily and the spark produced is not hot 
enough. 

The tips are fitted with platinum in or¬ 
der to make them last as long as possible, 
considering the intense heat to which they 
are subjected. When considerable oil is 
used in the cylinders, these points mav be¬ 
come clogged with carbon sufficiently to 
form a bridge across the points through 
which the current may pass continuously. 
In that case, there will be no spark to ex¬ 
plode the charge, and it will be com¬ 
pressed, but the explosion will be missed. 
This condition is spoken of as missing, 
and the remedy, in addition to cleaning out 
Fig. 68—A group of modern spark plugs the Cylinders thoroughly and using- less oil 

indicating the differences in construction. • .„i ,i i i i ” rr t ’ 

IS to take the spark plug out, clean off the 
points with emery cloth until the metal is so clean it shines, then reset the points 
to the correct distance apart and replace. 

All of the foregoing has been descriptive of the low-tension ignition system, 
in which the source of current was a dry or wet battery. When a rotary gen¬ 
erator produces the current, conditions are changed considerably, even if this be 
a low-tension generator. When the current from the latter was used, a form of 
circuit breaker which was driven from the engine so as to be exact had to be used, 
the nature of this giving this form of ignition its name of make and break. As 
this has gone out of use now, it will not be described further. The drawing, Fig. 



the open position through gummy stem, bad 
carhuretion in combination with spark re¬ 
tarded, fully retarded ignition at starting 
time, a back fire when starting due to ignition 
adanced too far, or faulty timing. Any one 
of these or any combination of them will 
bring about the trouble mentioned. 

216. How can these be remedied or pre¬ 
vented? Practically all of them can be rem¬ 
edied by thorough care and common cleanli¬ 
ness, Thus an inlet valve stem sticking be¬ 
cause of gummed oil could have been pre¬ 
vented by using less oil on it, or cleaning 
with kerosene if it got too much by accident. 

217. When the engine stops, after running 
along all right for some time, and ignition 


and carhuretion systems seem to be in good 
condition, while there is fuel in the tank. 

There may be water in the gasoline, this 
got in through not using a strainer in the 
tank. Chamois is the best thing through 
which to pass gasoline, as it will take out 
impurities which a brass gauze strainer will 
not. Every fuel system should have strainer 
and filter at the low point. If this were the 
case, the water would be separated out by it 
and consequently would not get to the car¬ 
buretor. 

218. In what other ways may the engine 
be stopped, considering only those faults due 
to the carhuretion system? By a choked sup¬ 
ply pipe to the carburetor, caused through 































































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168 


Ignition and Carhuretion 


69, however, shows the current generator, its connection by means of a single wire 
to the bus bar, along the tops of the cylinders, and the further connections from 
this to the individual igniter contacts. The dotted portions of the latter show 
the movable lever within the cylinder, at the points of which the spark usually 
occurs when the break. The shaft along the front of the cylinders with the spiral 
cams is driv¬ 
en from the 
motor and 
controls the 
breaking ac¬ 
tion at the 
four points. 

The purpose 
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cams is to 
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of the “break” 
according t o 
the speed of* 
the motor. 

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son, the shaft 
may be moved 

longitudinally, in which case the rollers have a different position in the cams and 
consequently the “break” comes at a different point in the stroke. Their shape 
and size is so arranged as to give fully as wide a variation from fully advanced to 
fully retarded, as is^the case with any other form of ignition. It will be noted that 
cylinder No. 4 is in contact, while the other three are not, which is correct. The 
system shown is that of the Studebaker car, and is no longer used, as stated 
previously. 



Fig. 69—A low tension system of ignition formerly used on Studebaker cars. 


or current generators, are still used, however, with a coil to 
LOW"TENSION step the current up to the required tension or pressure. The 
MAGNETOS, reason for their use lies in the simplicity and low first cost of 
the generator, its small number of parts making it well-nigh 
impossible to get out of order. In addition, the wiring is very simple, and short 
circuits caused by water or oil need not be considered to any great extent because 
of the nature (low tension) of the current. 


this unit performs for both the battery starting system and 
USING THE COIL, the magneto operating system. In the form shown by out¬ 
line at Fig. 71, and in diagram of wiring at Fig. 70, it will 
be noted that this member (the coil) is of the non-trembler type with its own 
condenser. The distributor on the magneto, and driven at half the armature shaft 
speed, is used as a timer for both systems, while the interrupter of the magneto 
performs the function of a circuit breaker or trembler for both systems also. 


dropping waste or other foreign matter into 
the gas tank; by an air lock in the supply 
pipe, caused by closing the hole in the top 
of the gas tank filler plug; by a choked jet, a 
carburetor filter choked, a poor mixture, the 
gasoline in the tank not reaching the car¬ 
buretor, no gasoline in the tank, and the old¬ 
est and simplest of all, gasoline not turned 
on. ^ 

219. In climbing a hill, the motor stops for 
no apparent reason. It may be nothing more 
than the change of level caused by the rela¬ 
tive positions of the gas tank and the fioat 
in the carburetor. The latter may be inclined 
so much that no gas flows at the nozzle, 
causing the stoppage, or the whole carburetor 
may be cut off so that no gas flows to it. 


220. The motor operates nicely, then after 
passing over a bump in the road stops sud¬ 
denly, The float may have been dislodged 
from its position, the stem bent, and the 
whole so jammed as to stop the flow of fuel 
into the float chamber. In that case, the en¬ 
gine would run until the gas in the float 
chamber had been exhausted, then stop be¬ 
cause there was no more fuel admitted. 

221. Is this a common occurrence? No, but 

a serious one, for the bent float valve stem is 
hard to straighten so that it will act per¬ 
fectly thereafter. Usually a very slight bend 
will be left in it, and this will be sufficient 
every now and then, when conditions are fa¬ 
vorable, to cause it to stick again, the former 
stoppage being repeated then. 



































































170 


Ignition and Carhuretio7i 


When the battery is furnishing the current, it flows through the interrupter and 
switch to the coil, thus forming the primary circuit. The secondary is formed by 
the coil, the distributor, the spark plugs, through the ground screw of the inter¬ 
rupter to the ground. 

With this same system, as the wiring 
diagram outlines, when the magneto is 
furnishing a low-tension current, it 
flows through the interrupter, switch, 
and coil as before, these with the 
ground forming the primary circuit. 
The secondary is made up as before of 
the coil, the distributor, the spark 
plugs, and the ground through the 
ground screw on the interrupter. The 
only difference between the two is the 
source and character of the current 
from the batteries and a direct current 
in one case, and from the magneto and 



an alternating current in the other. 


While this has been called a low- 
tension system, and properly is such— 
for both current producers bring forth 
a current of low pressure—still its maker calls it a high-tension system, from the 
fact that a current of high pressure is produced finally at the spark plugs. This 
being contrary to the custom of nomenclature, has done much to confuse users of 
this particular system. 


represent, however, the greater part of the current 
TRUE HIGH-TENSION generators in use to-day. If standard practice anff 
MAGNETOS popular approval count for anything, this is the most 

successful form by far, since it outnumbers all others. 
Such a system uses no separate coil box, having the coil incorporated in the mag¬ 
neto, as well as the condenser. In this way, the current generated is of the high- 
tension type, so that the incorporating of a low-tension circuit breaker and a high- 
tension current distributor in the instrument makes it self-contained and complete. 
With this modification, however, at the low speeds of hand cranking, varying from 
8o r.p.m. down to as low as 40 r.p.m., the current generated by the magneto arma¬ 
ture and the consequent spark are so feeble as not to ignite the charge readily. 

For this reason, it is customary to fit a battery system to the magneto system 
in such a way that the incorporated parts of the low-tension circuit breaker, high- 
tension distributor, and coil are made use of for both. Where the coil is a separate 
unit from the magneto—that is, not incorporated in the latter but carried in a 
separate box on the dash or elsewhere—it is used for both systems the same. 
When this double system—or, as it is called by the majority of makers, dual sys¬ 
tem, since a number of parts perform dual functions—is used, the battery current 
is used for starting, and for that purpose only. 


222 . After a similar "bump, the motor seems 
to pick up speed and run faster than before, 
while missing" occurs occasionally, and the 
exhaust begins to show sig'ns of dense smoke? 

In this case, the float has jumped off its seat 
and jammed in such a way that it does not 
operate, and the gasoline flows right through 
to the needle, flooding it. The motor is re¬ 
ceiving too much fuel, and is wasting the 
excess. 

223. The carburetor floods, but the float is 
In its correct position, and the valve is not 
stuck, nor the stem bent or jammed? The 

float, if a cork one, may be watersoaked or 
rather gasoline soaked, and, if a metal one 
and hollow, may be punctured. Cork floats 
are covered with a coating of shellac to pro¬ 


tect them, and the impure fuel may have 
eaten this off, after which the cork wifi soon 
become soaked, and consequently heavy. It 
will not act as it did before, and will let more 
gasoline pass. 

224. How can this be remedied? The float 
can be taken out, dried thoroughly, and then 
re-shellacked. In a case of this sort, it is 
advisable to play safe and give the float while 
it is out of the vaporizer several coats of 
shellac. 

225. How can the punctured metal float be 
remedied? Take it out, heat to drive out all 
of the fuel left after emptying what will come 
out in that way, then solder the hole. Diffi¬ 
culty will be encountered in finding this if it 
be small, but it can be found by heating 















































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17 ^ 


Ignition and Carhuretion 


Da8bk.{<^ 


• Switcl 



Fig. 71—End view of the Remy 
magneto shown in Fig. 70. 


As soon as a start has been made, the switch, 
generally located in the center of the dash or at 
another equally convenient place, is thrown over to 
magneto. The latter is used for continuous run¬ 
ning, Under these circumstances, the small amount 
of current taken from the batteries gives them a 
very long life as compared with their short exist¬ 
ence when used continuously for ignition purposes. 

All this is shown in the diagram. Fig. 72, pre¬ 
viously mentioned, and the drawing, Fig. 70, which 
shows the components of the same system in a 
more easily recognized form. In the former, it 
will be noted that a push button is indicated. This 
is for starting on the spark, as it is called. When 
the motor has been running and it comes time to 
stop, the driver shuts off his spark but opens the 
throttle. Thus, the motor in slowing down and 
stopping draws into the cylinders a full charge of 
rich and readily combustible gas. When it is next 
desired to start, the switch is thrown to the battery 
position, the throttle and spark finger levers set 
right for running, and the push button pressed. This sends the battery current— 
of high amperage, as pointed out previously—through the coil and distributor to 
the spark plugs. The construction of the interrupter is such that this momentary 
contact of the button will coincide with a break in the current furnished, this be¬ 
ing the condition necessary for 
the generation of a high-ten¬ 
sion current in the coil. Of 
course, the current flowing 
through the high-tension dis¬ 
tributor can go only to the cyl¬ 
inder in which the firing point 
has been reached, consequently 
the spark will occur only in 
the cylinder which is fitted to 
receive it—is waiting for it, so 
to speak. 

This covers all of the ordi¬ 
nary ignition parts and their 
functions. Of course, there 
are a large number of special 
pieces of apparatus fitted for 
use with special systems, but it 
is considered that the space 
can be used to better advan- 
than describinpf all of 



PRIHART CIRCUIT 
SECOtOMSY ciDcurr 


— GROUND QRCVlTTHROUOHfXAHE 


Fig. 72—The Bosch high tenfeion magneto carries its own con¬ 
denser and coil. 


tage 


when there is some gasoline inside. This will 
drive off a combustible vapor, and it can be 
ignited at the hole. If the float is found to 
have a large number of holes—that is, if it 
is porous—a new one must be substituted, 
unless the owner wishes to have it copper 
plated, which will close the holes effectually. 

226. Does the shape of the inlet pipe have 
any hearing on the mixture? Very little, if 
any. Designers aim to make the shape such 
that the distances traveled by the gases from 
the vaporizing chamber to the different cyl¬ 
inders is equal in length and In number and 
shape of turns. It is considered that were 
this not the case, more gas might be drawn 
to the cylinder which had the shortest or 
least bent pipes. Consequently, the other one 


or ones w^hich has the longest and most bent 
pipes would get much less gas. This would 
be a cumulative action, and ultimately the 
difference would be such as to produce irreg¬ 
ular action. 

227. Aside from this, is there any special 
point observed in laying out inlet pipes? 

None, except to have a large enough opening 
to pass the greatest possible amount of gas. 
The permissible speed at which the gases may 
travel is fixed, and from this and the quantity 
maximum, the size of the pipe is propor¬ 
tioned. 

228. Is the automatic or suction valve used 
for engine inlets? No, it went out of use for 
automobile engines about five years, and for 
motorcycles and motorboat engines at least 


















































































































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174 


Ignition and Carhuretion 


these in detail, since if one were described, it would be only fair to describe the 
others with an equal amount of detail. 

is but a method of converting a liquid into a gas, as in the 
CARBURETION liquid form the fuel cannot be burned inside the cylinders of 
an automobile, while as a gas, carrying the proper proportion 
of oxygen with it for burning, it can be used inside the motor. The carburetor is 
a more or less simple device for converting the liquid to a gas and adding to it the 
necessary quantity of oxygen in the form of atmospheric air. 

In general, there are three types of devices for doing this, these varying 
according to the method followed. They are: 

1. The surface carburetor, in which the air passes across the surface of a 

pool of fuel, absorbing a quantity of it in passing. 

2. The ebullition or filtering carburetor, in which the air is passed up through 

the body of fuel from below in the form of bubbles, these carrying with 
them more or less of the fuel and converting this into a vapor above 
the main body of liquid. 

3. The float feed, or spraying carburetor, in which the suction of the engine 

draws the fuel in the form of a very fine spray past a spray nozzle, to 
which the liquid has been raised by means of a float in a separate 
chamber. 

Both of the first two are older 
forms, now discarded, but a relic 
of the first named is to be found 
in the so-called puddle type of va¬ 
porizer, of which Holley—and to 
some extent, Duryea and Bennett 
—are examples. All modern car¬ 
buretors come in the third class, 
the differences lying in the details 
and the arrangement of parts. In 
the following explanations, the 
function of and necessity for the 
various parts will be pointed out, 
using some simple form, after 
which a number of well-known devices which have been more than ordinarily 
successful will be presented to show the different arrangements. 

In general, carburetors have a fuel or float chamber and a vaporizing cham¬ 
ber with a passage or passages connecting the two and another passage or pas¬ 
sages connecting the latter with the inlet pipe to the motor cylinders. Thus, as 
shown in the sketch. Fig. 74, which represents an elementary form of vaporizing 
device rather than any carburetor now made and sold, the fuel enters the bowl or 
cup A, from which it flows to the standpipe C through the connecting tube B. 
As the law of liquids applies, the level in the standpipe will be equal to the 
height in the supply chamber, as shown by the horizontal line M-N. This stand¬ 
pipe is located in the center of a large tube, the bottom end of which, F, is open 
to the inflow of air, while the top end G connects with the motor. 



Fig. 73—Timer of the Roller type for a four-cylinder 
Motor. 


three years ago. While simple, it was not 
flexible enough, nor sufflciently accurate. 

229. Will the ordinary engine born other 
fuels than gasoline? The engine will work 
well enough on any fuel that the carburetor 
can handle. It is advisable, however, to use 
higher compression motors on the heavier 
fuels, such as kerosene, alcohol, etc. This 
means a change in the design or construc¬ 
tion. 

230. How does a surface carburetor work? 

The gasoline is arranged in a flat chamber 
with a bioad surface over which the entering 
air passes, or else with a wick dipping into 
the liquid, and the air passing over the top. 
Of the wick. 


231. Was this very simple device satisfac¬ 
tory? Yes, on the unusually light and very 
volatile fuels of the earlier days; it would 
not work on 1914 fuels. 

232. Was this form economical? Very much 
so; this was its chief advantage, even over 
its marked simplicity. 

233. If an engine has a carburetor, the 
needle valve of which is too large for the 
other parts, how can this be remedied? By 
contracting the top of the fuel orifice so that 
the hole will be made somewhat smaller. 
This can be done by peening with a hammer, 
using a light one and great care. 

234. In case this work is done quickly, and 
the hole made too small? A small drill or 













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176 


Ignition and Carburetion 


The fuel flow being constant through the tube C, there would be times when 
this would furnish too much liquid and at other times too little. In the former 
instance, gasoline would be wasted, and in the latter the engine would not get 
enough, consequently the needle valve H is introduced. This has a tapered upper 
.end which corresponds more or less closely with the tapered inner surface of the 
upper end of the opening in the tube C. When the needle is screwed down rather 
low, as shown, the effect is to give an unrestricted passage, about the same as if 
there were no needle there. If, on the other hand, less fuel were desired, the 
needle would be screwed upward until it lessened the space through which the 
liquid could pass and thus restrict the flow. Obviously, it could be made more 
or less as desired, since the simple twist of the handle gives a different sized 
opening and consequently a different flow of fuel. 

In practice it has been found best to 
have the level in the supply chamber 
such as to bring the fuel up to within i 
millimeter (about 5/128 of an inch, or 
slightly more than 1/32 inch) of the 
top of the spray nozzle. In this posi¬ 
tion, the slightest suction will raise it 
into the chamber surrounding the noz¬ 
zle. The air is drawn in from the bot¬ 
tom of the larger pipe and mixes with 
the spray of fuel raised at the top of C, 
thus creating a gasoline vapor. It is 
possible—in fact, probable—that the 
right quantity of air is not present for 
complete combustion when the mixture 
reaches the cylinders, so additional air 
ports are cut in the walls of the va¬ 
porizing tube above the top of the jet, 
as at I, /. The same amount of addi¬ 
tional air is not needed at all times, as, 
for instance, early in the morning and 
in the evening the air contains more 
moisture and less of it is needed. Dur¬ 
ing the day, the air is more dry, and a greater quantity is required. For these 
reasons, the additional or auxiliary air passages must be varied. Thus, those at 
1 are covered by a sleeve J, which has similar ports cut in it and which may be 
turned around. 

When turned so that the ports register exactly, the full amount of air enters, 
but when this sleeve is turned so that a part of the opening is cut off, a smaller 
amount is admitted. This might be called the auxiliary air adjustment. Again, 
the engine at low speeds requires less vapor than when running at high rates or 
when working hard. Obviously it is necessary to vary the amount which is ad¬ 
mitted to the engine without, however, disturbing to any great extent the manner 
in which the vapor is created and its continuous creation regardless of the amount 





Fig. 74—Outline sketch of basic vaporizing device. 


reamer may be run through the hole, but care 
should be used to select a size smaller than 
the original hole, otherwise all the w^ork will 
have been wasted. As these holes are very 
minute, this work should be done with great 
pains, in order to get an accurate job. 

235. What is a better plan than trying- to fix 
this yourself? Apply to the maker for a new 
nozzle. It is doubtful if any amateur could 
do this work with sufficient accuracy; the 
upper surface of the nozzle would be ragged 
and give an irregular spray. Any one could 
screw out one nozzle and screw another in its 
place. 

236. What g-ood does heating* the air do? 

Carburetion is a chemical reaction which re¬ 
quires heat. Ordinarily this is taken from the 


surrounding atmosphere, but in cold weather 
when there is no heat available, it is best to 
supply this. 

237. What are the best ways of doing- this? 

By means of hot air from the exhaust pipes, 
supplied into the main air opening, or by hot 
water from the engine-cooling system, piped 
around the vaporizing chamber. ^ 

238. Which is preferable? The water is more 
thorough, but requires more apparatus, costs 
more, adds more to the weight of the car. 

239. In burning- heavier fuels, is the ordi¬ 
nary heating- means sufficient? No additional 
heat must be supplied. In this case, good 
results may be obtained by using both air and 
water methods at once. 





















178 


Ignition and Carhuretion 


used. This is done by introducing into the inlet pipe a throttle valve K. In its 
simplest form, this is a round disc of the same diameter as the inside of the pipe, 
mounted on a movable shaft in such a manner that it may be turned to any de¬ 
sired position between a full right angle to the pipe, in which position it cuts off 
the communication entirely, to a parallel with the pipe, in which position the full 
area of the opening is available. In the former position, the gas is cut off, none 
being able to pass to the engine, and the latter cannot run. In the latter position, 
the maximum amount is passing and the engine should be running at its highest 
possible speed. This is spoken of as the throttle, but the type of controlling valve 
shown and described is known as a butterfly valve. 

What has been described previously as the auxiliary air valve, with its variable 
opening, is simply the working out of what Commodore Krebs laid down as a 
fundamental law of carburetion, upon the occasion of his development of the first 
float-feed carburetor back in the early nineties. He said then—and it is equally 
as true to-day—that when the air for vaporization of a liquid fuel is admitted to 
the carbureting device in two different quantities through two different orifices, 
if one of these be fixed, the other must be variable. In practice, the primary air 
opening is fixed in size; therefore, the auxiliary air port must be a variable one. 

In addition to the parts shown and described in connection with this simple 
device, there are but few parts needed to complete any modern device. These are 
the float, for controlling the fuel level and flow to the spray nozzle; the priming 
valve, for depressing the float in order to furnish an excess of fuel for starting 
purposes; the heating arrangement, for making vaporization more easy in cold 
weather; additional f uel nozzles in certain types with the modifications which 
these require; the strainer, for clearing the fuel, as it flows in, of particles of 
dirt or other foreign matter; the inter-connecting levers, for those vaporizers in 
which the throttle and the air valve are connected together; the bypass, for sup¬ 
plying pure air above the throttle on certain forms, and such springs, cams, levers, 
dashpots and other mechanical features as the arrangement and working of the 
device calls for. 


With these exceptions, all modern carburetors are 
CARBURETOR’S more or less alike. True, they are arranged radically 

OPERATION SIMILAR, different, but when these differences are analyzed 

closely they will be found to consist mainly of the 
natural differences brought on by moving a necessary part from a position at the 
side to one at the top or from changing two parts from the sides to one at the 
top and the other at the bottom, etc. 

Taking these up in order, the float in common use is of two kinds: The 
shellac-covered cork, and the hollow metal, usually copper. The former has the 
disadvantage that the shellac may be worn or scraped off, after which it is but a 
question of time before the whole thing becomes fuel soaked and consequently 
sinks instead of floating, and thus becomes useless. The hollow-metal form has a 
similar disadvantage, in that it must be joined or united to itself somewhere, and 
this seam is liable to open. When it does, the float leaks, the fuel seeps into the 
interior, and ultimately fills the. inner opening, after which this form of float will 


171A. What is a storage "battery? It is a 

form in which the current supply may be re¬ 
newed after it has been entirely used up, by 
charging from some source of current. In 
the sense in which the word storage is used, 
it is not a storage batttery at all, but the 
general idea is that the charging process 
stores current in it, and that it may be used 
until this is gone, when more must be stored 
in it. 

172A. How does it differ from the dry bat¬ 
tery? The active electrolyte is a liquid and 
may be spilled, while in a dry battery it is 
a semi-fluid and may be sealed up tightly. 
The storage battery, on the other hand, must 
be left open at the top. 


173A. What harm will it do to spill this 
liquid? Being an acid, although a mild one, 
it will eat into and corrode everything with 
which it comes in contact. Moreover, the 
battery itself will not work well with the 
level of the liquid lowered very much. 

174A. How is the loss of liquid replaced? 

By adding distilled water in small quantities, 
but at regular intervals so that the level 
does not get very low and if so, for a very 
short time only. 

175A. In what way can a storage battery 
be recharged? From any one of three: from 
a direct current supply, as a house lighting 
system; from a source of alternating current. 





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180 


Ignition and Carhuretion 



Coi)eea7tn.o 


not float and consequently is useless also. With the improvement in welding- 
devices and processes, this latter difficulty is being overcome rapidly, the result 
being that the majority of different makes use the hollow-metal type. 

This is not to say that there is any drawback in either form, for there is not; 
the use of either will give equally good results, and the selection of one of these 
two forms is more or less a matter of personal preference. 

In general, the fuel enters the float chamber at the bottom or the top. In the 
latter case, the most common, by the way, the float is arranged so that its rising 
depresses the float valve so that at a certain predetermined level the inflow is cut 
off, until the outflow tO' the vaporizing chamber floats the controlling member 
down low enough to open the valve again and thus admit more fuel. Consider¬ 
ing the bottom entrance case, the fuel is cut off in one of four ways: The upper 
and outer surfaces of the float connect 

with one end of a series (usually but JEcce:9tn.c, 

two) of toggle levers, the other end of 
which is fastened to the float-valve 
spindle; the float itself carries the 
valve spindle which has an inverted, 
cone-shaped lower extremity, this seat¬ 
ing at a certain height on a cone- 
shaped surface in the inlet pipe; the 
toggle arrangement described first is 
inverted and placed at the bottom, 
while a spring is added which tends to 
hold the needle down and thus holds 
the arms of the toggle against the bot¬ 
tom of the float. Otherwise, the ris¬ 
ing of the float would lift it off of 
these arms, and the arrangement 
would not work; the side of the float is fastened to a short lever, which is pivoted 
in the carburetor casing at the middle, its other end surrounding and actuating 
the needle valve. In the first three types the needle may be on the vertical center 
line of float and float chamber; in the last named, it cannot. Sometimes, how¬ 
ever, this last is an advantage for one reason or another. 

Another point in the design and use of floats : Their position relative to the 
vaporizing chamber, where the spray nozzle is located, is highly important, for 
this determines, under certain conditions, whether there will be any flow of fuel 
or not. Thus the float chamber with its float inside may be concentric with the 
vaporizing chamber—that is, surrounding it—or it may be set ofif to one side. 
If the float chamber be set in front of or back of the vaporizing space and the 
spray needle, in climbing or descnding a hill the latter will be either starved of 
fuel or else overflowed with it, according to where the float is. This is brought 
about by the difference in level of the liquid, as pointed out in Fig. 75. Unfortu¬ 
nately, the same is true when the offset float chamber is set at the side, for on 
certain highly crowned roads, when one wheel may be at least 10 to 12 inches 
lower than the other, the needle is again starved or flooded, as the case may be. 






Fig. 75—The two types of float chamber location, 
indicating the advantages of each and the 
disadvantages. 


through the medium of a rectifier; and by 
means of a so-called primary cell. 

176A. Whicli is the "best? One is as good 
as the others, the usual charging including 
one of the first two methods, primarily be¬ 
cause they are more handy, and in adition, 
more quickly available. 

177A. Wliich is the quickest? There is no 
such thing as charging a storage battery 
quickly. When this is done, the plates are 
sure to be buckled or injured otherwise. All 
three charge at the same rate. 

178A. How is the voltage of a house light¬ 
ing system adjusted to battery charging? 
The voltage makes little or no difference, be¬ 
yond the knowledge that it is higher than 10. 


179A. If that is the case, with what is the 
operator concerned? WUth the amperage or 
quantity to be put in. 


180A. How is this determined? In charg¬ 
ing the arrangement is such that only so 
rnuch can pass through to the battery being 
charged. This is maintained until the bat¬ 
tery has received a full or complete charge 
its size and character determining this. 


181A. What is that arrangement, in the 
case of using a house lighting current of, 
say, 110 volts? Carbon filament lamps are 
introduced into the circuit so that the current 
must pass through them first. The ordinary 
16 candlepower lamp will allow but % am¬ 
pere to flow through it, while a 32 cartdle- 































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182 


Ignition and Carburetion 


This would seem to point to the concentric form as the only desirable one, and 
yet its lack of accessibility, as compared with the separate chamber, is such a 
serious disadvantage as to almost overbalance this. 


does not show so much difference from one device to an> 
THE PRIMING other. In general, it consists of a short, straight, round rod 
VALVE OR ROD set so as to point directly at an edge of the float, but held 

away from this by means of a spring. To prime, the driver 
lifts the hood and presses this rod down against the spring pressure. This de- 



Fig. 76—The G and A carburetor in elevation and section—note the ball air valves. 



Fig. 77—Elevation and section of the Stromberg carburetor in which a glass float 
' chamber is utilized. 


presses the float to such a point that an excess of fuel flows into the float chamber 
and thence to the spray nozzle. In this way, a surplus of fuel is made available, 


power lamp will let a current of 1 ampere 
pass, and a 64, 2 amperes, etc. By connect¬ 
ing- in as many lamps as is needed to make 
up the current required for the battery, the 
system is completed and the battery may be 
charg-ed by simply turning on the “juice,” 
then allowing it to stand until the charge is 
complete. 

182A. What is the usual charging rate for 
storage batteries? About 3 amperes is a 
good rate, but the ordinary battery -will stand 
4 without any damage, and if new, in good 
condition, and the charge is required as 
quickly as possible, 5 amperes can be used 
when the charging is conducted by one able 
to watch it. 


183A. How are these various amounts ob¬ 
tained? As pointed out previously, a 16- 
candlepOwer carbon lamp on a 110-volt cir¬ 
cuit will let y 2 ampere pass. Then to obtain 
3 amperes it is necessary to have 6 lamps; 
for 4 dmperes 8 lamps of this size, and for 5, 
10 larhps. 

184A. Is it wise to use all lamps of the 
same size? Yes and no. Where they are of 
different sizes, the current may be varied to 
suit conditions. Thus, if the charge was 
started at 5 amperes, and this was found 
to be too high for that particular battery, 
the removal of a single lamp would reduce 
it to 41/^. If smaller lamps or smaller and 
larger ones were used in combinations, it 
































































































































































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184 


Ignition and Carhuretion 


which insures the overrich mixture necessary for easy and quick starting. In 
order to prevent or avoid the necessity for lifting the hood in order to get at this 
priming valve, they are now made with a short bent lever, pivoted in such a posi¬ 
tion that one arm rests on the top of the 
primer in much the same way the finger would. 

Then a cord or wire is attached to the lower 
or vertical end of the lever, this being run 
forward through the radiator or along the 
frame with some form of ring or lever at the 
extremity. Then, when cranking, the driver 
can operate the primer from the front of the 
car by pulling this ring or moving the lever. 

In some cases, when the float is concentric 
with the float valve, the latter is carried 
through the former and up through the top of 
the float chamber so as to project above it for 
some distance. In this type, it is possible to 
have the primer work directly upon the float 
valve stem, instead of indirectly through the 
float, as just described. By having the previ¬ 
ously described bent lever work the float valve 
stem up or down, as the case might be, the 
desired priming action or enriching of the fuel 
is effected. 

In one American vaporizer there is a sec¬ 
ondary valve set into the fuel inflow passage in such a way that it may be 
operated independently of the float and its valve. The arrangement of this is 
such that it is closed normally, but when opened it allows extra fuel to flow and 
to pass into the vaporizing chamber despite the position or action of the float and 
its valve. The priming connections are attached to this, which is called the 
priming valve, and is used for priming only. 


has the effect of making possible vaporization at times 
HEATING THE FUEL and under conditions which without the heating would 

be impossible or at least very difflcult. Thus in the 
winter time and during the cold months, starting is most difficult, and with some 
devices practically impossible, while during the very cold days continuous running 
is difficult. To supply this need, heat is supplied from some convenient source. 
The exhaust is one of these sources, and the cooling water the other. Whichever 
one of these is used, it is supplied to the jacket which surrounds the vaporizing 
chamber or the inlet pipe just above this. 

Thus, Fig. 76 represents a vaporizer (G. & A.) in which water is used for 
heating the upper portion, just above the vaporizing chamber and just above the 
point where the additional air is admitted. As this is a most successful device, 
the utility of this particular position cannot be gainsayed, although the majority 



Fig. 78—The Peerless carburetor is situ¬ 
ated at the bottom of a long vaporizing 
tube, water jacketed. 


would be possible to try 4% first, and then if 
that was found to be too high, subse¬ 

quently. 

185A. How could this he managed? By 

using 3 32-candlepower lamps, 2 16s and 4 
8s, it would be possible to get any combina¬ 
tion by quarters from 5 amperes down to 14 . 
Similarly, with 8 16s and 4 8s, except when 
it came to reducing the flow by a large 
quantity, it would mean taking out a num¬ 
ber of lamps. 

186A. How much current should he put 
into a hattery? Every battery has a rating, 
according to the number of ampere hours of 
output which characterize it. At least this 
amount must be put in. The ampere-hours 
of input are found by multiplying the steady 
flow by the number of hours the battery is 


on charge, or to put it in a more practical 
way, the number of hours the battery must 
be charged is found by dividing its ampere- 
hour capacity by the number of amperes al¬ 
lowed to flow. 

187A. Give a practical example of this? A 

6-60 is a battery which is used very widely, 
namely a 60-ampere hour unit which works at 
6 volts. To charge this at a 3 ampere rate 

would require 20 hours, at a 4 ampere rate 

15 hours, and at a 5 ampere rate 12 hours. 
Thus, in the first case (at 3 amperes), if it 

were put on the circuit at 6 o’clock on one 

night it would not be fully charged until 2 
o’clock the following afternoon, and would 
not require any attention whatever until 
about noon. In the second case (at 4 am¬ 
peres) it would have to be on the circuit 





















186 


Ignition and Carhuretion 


of makers prefer the water right around the jet and vaporizing chamber as shown 
in Fig. 77. This shows the Stromberg device in both section and elevation, the 

former indicating the position and ar¬ 
rangement of the water jacket, while the 
latter shows the inlet and outlet connec¬ 
tions for the water. 

Another method of differing from that 
of Fig. 76 lies in the use of a very long 
inlet pipe with the carburetor at the bot¬ 
tom and the auxiliary air valve at the top 
close to the cylinders, with the heating 
water arranged around the upper portion 
only. This method is used by Peerless, as 
shown in Fig. 78. 

When the exhaust is utilized for heating 
purposes, larger passages are left gener¬ 
ally, or metal bodies introduced therein to 
hold the heat. Both plans are followed on 
the Longuemare device, seen in Fig. 79. 
This is one of the most successful of the 
many French vaporizers, although the par¬ 
ticular device illustrated was intended to 



Fig. 79—The Longuemare carburetor which 
will utilize any heavy fuel, as alcohol, kero¬ 
sene, benzol, etc. 


be used for alcohol as well as gasoline. 


Throttle Valve, 


In this the jacket may be seen as well as 
the heating bodies of metal. A somewhat 
similar method of heating by exhaust is 
used on the Holley kerosene carburetor, 
shown at Fig. 80. The vaporization is not AirViJve 
completed in this, however, until in the up¬ 
per portion, where the auxiliary air is 
added, and it will be noted that the exhaust OaahpotCyi^Jer 
heating chamber is carried up as close to 
this point as the construction will allow. 

It will be noted, moreover, that the ex¬ 
haust gases enter at the bottom, so that they 
present the maximum amount of heat to the 
fuel to be vaporized at the point where it is 
most needed, namely, at the beginning of 
vaporization. The gases are hottest when 
just leaving the cylinders, and for this rea¬ 
son are immediately, with as little piping 
as possible, brought against the liquid fuel 
at the point where vaporization com¬ 
mences. 


Gasoline 

Vaporizing Valve 



KeroKne Regulating Nee<Be 


Adjusting Needli 
Qani{e 


'Exhaust Inli 


Spraying Nozzle 

Float VahreXait 


Float Valve J 
Float Chambei 


Kerosene Inlet 


Primary Air Inlet 

Fig. 80—Section through the Holley kero¬ 
sene vaporizer, in which an extended exhaust 
jacket is used. 


from the same time, 6 o’clock one night until 
9 the next morning, and would not need any 
attention until daybreak at least, taking this 
at 6:30 a. m.; in the third case (at 5 am¬ 
peres) it would have to be on charge from 6 
in the evening until the same time the next 
morning. In this case a better plan would be 
to put it on charge at 8 in the evening, so 
that it could be inspected at 6 the next 
morning and again at 7, the more rapid rate 
requiring closer watching. 

188A. Is there any way of telling- when a 
hattery is almost charged, aside from figur¬ 
ing out how long a charge it should have? 
Ordinarily, the positive plates in a lead type 
of battery are of a chocolate or velvety 


brown color, while the negative plates have 
the color of spongy lead, which is a light 
gray. When discharged, the two colors are 
materially changed, the gray plates have a 
good deal of brown in them and present a 
dulled or mouldy appearance. Similarly, the 
positives lose their characteristic brow-n col¬ 
or and show a somewhat similar muddy look. 
As the charging proceeds, and particularly 
as it approaches completion, each set of 
plates begins to clear up and resume its nat¬ 
ural and normal color. 

189A. Is this color alone a perfect test? 
No. Several hours before the charge is ac¬ 
tually completed, these colors are so nearly 
right as to deceive any amateur. 











































































































i 



188 


Ignition and Carhuretion 


HEATING THE AIR 


admitted has about the same influence, except that it adds 


the heat internally 
methods. This is 
firms; in fact, a few years ago when bet¬ 
ter fuel was available it was used by the 
majority. There are two methods of do¬ 
ing this: Heating the primary air, or 
heating the auxiliary air. The former 
should be the more efficient, since if the 
warm air be added at the start when heat 
is most needed, vaporization should start 
more quickly and proceed with more 
rapidity. In the vaporizer shown in Fig. 
8i, the additional air is warmed, the pipe 
at the upper right extending on to the ex¬ 
haust manifold, or elsewhere where much 
heat is available. As will be noted, a 
sleeve is set around the lower end of this. 
It may be turned, and when it is so turned 
that the slot in it registers with the slot in 
the pipe the atmospheric air will be taken 
directly instead of the heated air through 
the pipe. 

In a vaporizer like that shown in Fig. 
82 (Kingston), the primary air is pre- 


instead of externally as in the other 
followed by a number of different 


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Valve Sprtaff 


Sprioff Teiialpa 
Adiaatmeot* 


Mala Ala Calat. 


Foal Svpty (ra« Taak. 


Gaaoltaa Adioaitaff Seediib 


Fig. 81—A typical simple vaporizer in sec¬ 
tion, illustrating particularly the concentric 
float. 


Mccdle \tht Screw 
tWoUk Lner 


Geiolioe AJjas&ij Sctiw 


Vealori Tobe 


CuOntlct- 
TWottk Dik- 


Triaur Air lolel. 


CaekFW' 


fktt Cliemher 



heated, the pipe at the left, marked pri¬ 
mary air inlet, being carried on up to the 
exhaust manifold or elsewhere. The air 
is heated there by the pipe itself, a loosely 
fitted and very much enlarged chamber 
connecting with the pipe to the carburetor. 
The air is drawn in around the edges, 
heated by the nearly red-hot metal and 
drawn into the vaporizer. 

There it gets immediate action upon the 
fuel at the point where heat is most need¬ 
ed—that is, right at the point where the 
change from a liquid to a gas commences. 
By passing the air in so that it surrounds 
the fuel spray, rather than the opposite, a 
section, luost efficient vaporizing coefficient is ob- 
The additional air enters at the 

this 


Nonie " 

NccdW V«hrt' 

Fig. 82—Kingston carburetor in 
showing few parts and their simplicity—note 

ball air valves. Ldllieu. . , . , 

top, as Will be noticed m the sketch, 
coming in around the whole surface through the medium of a series of steel balls 
of various sizes, each one of which is seated in an opening to the underside of 
which the atmosphere has access at all times. 


190A. What, then, is a positive test? The 

specific gravity of the electrolyte should 
measure almost exactly 1.205. If it does not 
come up to this from the normal discharged 
figure of 1.185, the indication is that the cell 
is not fully charged or that it has some de¬ 
fect. This measurement is taken with a 
hydrometer, a simple device not unlike a 
large thermometer, and as easily used. In 
addition, when approaching a full charge, the 
gassing or giving off of the gas bubbles 
through the liquid electrolyte will cease. The 
combination of the three tests with the posi¬ 
tive figuring in advance of its needs gives a 
sure way of checking the charge. 


191A. Supposing* that one of these foux* 
things fell lower, yet the others showed a 
correct and complete charge, as, for instance, 
suppose the liquid showed a gravity of hut 
1,190? If the acid is of the right strength 
and there is enough of it to cover the plates, 
this indicates an absolute need for further 
charging, regardless of what the other 
things indicate. 

192A. In adding acid solution, or making 
the same, what precautions should he ob¬ 
served? The acid should be added to the 
water and not the opposite. 

193A. Why is this necessary? The com¬ 
bination of acid and water produces heat, 



































































:90 


Ignition and Carburetion 


is very difficult to vaporize, for the reason that so much additional 
KEROSENE heat is required. At the outset, too, practically no heat is available. 

For this reason, all kerosene vaporizers use the exhaust for heat¬ 
ing purposes. In the G. C. device, shown in Fig. 83, it forms the basis of the 
whole device, the carburetor—if it may be called that—being incorporated in the 
muffler. In fact, the specially constructed muffler needs only a float chamber and 
suitable connections to and from this, and the inlet manifold to dispense entirely 
with the ordinary vaporizing device. In substance it works as follows: The 
fuel (kerosene) is admitted to the float chamber in the usual manner. From this, 
marked g in the end view, it flows into the interior of the muffler-vaporizer 
through the pipe /. This has a series of holes along its length, through which 
the fuel passes out into the tube which 
surrounds it. The latter is located in 
the upper part of an annular space be¬ 
tween the exhaust pipe A and the cir¬ 
cular tube of larger diameter C. 

At the lower end of this same an¬ 
nular space another pipe (k) enters, 
this being an air supply corresponding 
to the usual carburetor primary air 
opening with a fixed area. It admits 
air to the annular ring and also 
through holes in the partition at the 
forward end of the inner portion of 
the device to the larger opening there. 

Herein the air is well heated before it 
passes back to the supply chamber e. 

By means of the heated pipes, the 
liquid fuel is heated to a considerable 
extent, so that it is changed to a vapor 
readily. In addition, the heated air 
available makes vaporization more 
easy. The exhaust gases pass in 
through A, turn back on themselves, 
and, in passing through the second annular ring, heat the exterior of the vaporiz¬ 
ing ring. Thence, they turn back on themselves again and pass out to the air. 
In this way, every available degree of heat is gotten out of them before allowing 
them to escape. The gas formed is admitted to the inlet pipe, but with a suitable 
auxiliary air valve to dilute the mixture which is very rich and the use of which 
would not be economical. The larger passage e, in combination with the annular 
passage, makes for the storage of a considerable amount of gas, so there is an 
available supply, no matter what the demands of the engine may be. In this way, 
the vaporizer is able to furnish a sufficient supply for rapid fluctuations of speed 
or similar changes. 





^Float chamber.'"’''’*' f^Hea't'iceumulatlnB tiodMB.. 
k—Air pipe. 


v^Front cover. 


Fig. 83—Components of the G C kerosene vapor¬ 
izing device, newly introduced to the American 
market. 


and if the water is poured into the acid such 
a tremendous amount of heat may be pro¬ 
duced as to do considerable damage, caus¬ 
ing what amounts to a small explosion. 

194A. Suppose the liquid or electrolyte 
falls below the top of the plates of the bat¬ 
tery, that is there is not enough to cover 
them entirely? If the solution gets more 
than % inch below the top of the plates, 
they will begin to buckle. This is a cumu¬ 
lative action and once started, proceeds very 
rapidly. Moreover, when the liquid gets low 
it evaporates more rapidly, while the extra 
internal heating which is caused lowers it 
with additional rapidity. Hence a low level 
may ruin a battery very quickly. 

195A. How can battery troubles be de¬ 
tected, when using them for ignition of the 


engine, and they are approaching a condition 
of discharge? When the engine starts prop¬ 
erly and runs well, but will slow down and 
stop as soon as the power is applied to the 
propulsion of the car, that is as soon as the 
gear is engaged and the clutch let in, it is 
a pretty good sign that the battery used for 
ignition is almost exhausted, i 

196A. Is there any particular trouble 
about ignition batteries which requires dif¬ 
ferent or special charging methods? W^hen 
they are discharged at a low rate and thus 
the discharging extends over a long period 
of time, sulphating sets in, and it is neces¬ 
sary to charge at an especially slow rate in 
order to reduce this sulphate and bring the 
battery back to a normal condition. 























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192 


Ignition and Carhuretion 


are said to give advantages which cannot be obtained in 
MULTIPLE NOZZLES any other manner. Thus, it is claimed for them that 

the slowest possible speeds may be obtained using the 
smaller of the nozzles (when there are 
but two), and the smallest when there 
are more than two, this being suffi¬ 
cient to bring the machine down to a 
veritable crawl and still have perfect 
vaporization and no misfiring. On the 
other hand, it is claimed that with 
both or all nozzles working to the lim¬ 
it, the biggest motor constructed may 
be supplied with a correct and satis¬ 
factory mixture. Both these condi¬ 
tions are brought about without any 
change of adjustment, and may be had 
one directly after the other in ordinary 
use of the car. A prominent and suc¬ 
cessful advocate of this method is 
Stearns, whose carburetor—a two-jet 
form—is shown in Fig. 84. 

In this it will be seen that there are 
two complete but separate vaporizing 
chambers, set side by side and communicating when both are in use, with a com¬ 
mon inlet pipe. When only the smaller is being used, it is shut off from the pipe 
by means of the large throttle valve. Each one of these chambers contains its 



Fig. 85—Section through the Saurer device which has proven great economy. 


own air valve with its individual adjustment, its own spraying nozzle with its 
separate flow of fuel, and the chamber itself has a shape specially designed for 
the size of the nozzle, the gas to be created and the amount of the supply to be 
furnished by it to the motor. 



Fig. 84—The Stearns twq-jet carburetor is in ef¬ 
fect, two different sized carburetors, working separ¬ 
ately. 


197A. Give an example to make this 
clear? Suppose a completely discharged 6-60 
which has sulphated badly. Normally this 
would be charged as pointed out at about 4 
amperes an hour, taking 15 hours to do the 
job. The battery having been used for igni¬ 
tion or horn work and being badly sulphated 
as a result, would be charged at a 2 am¬ 
pere rate and left on for twice as long or 
30 hours. Or if the owner was in no hurry 
for it, a rate of IV 2 amperes and left on for 
40 hours would be even better. 

198A. When a battery and coil ignition 
method is used, and the battery is exhausted 
so far that it will not give a spark, is there 
any way of getting home with it? If there 
are any dry cells in or on the car, no matter 
for what purpose they may be used, these 


can be disconnected from their former posi¬ 
tion, and connected up with the storage bat¬ 
tery so as to give a combined output suf¬ 
ficient to operate the coil which needs 6 
volts to operate, although neither one would 
have this alone. 

199A. Is there any other mann^ in which 
a nearly exhausted battery can he used to 
get home or to the nearest garage? Some¬ 
times, if one person sits and operates the 
trembler or vibrator on the coil with his 
finger, sufficient current will be allowed to 
flow to drive the car a couple of miles. 
There is no danger of a shock in this case, 
as the current is so feeble that it will not 
operate the vibrator itself. 

200A. Suppose the jolting of the car con¬ 
stantly spills the acid in a place where it 

































































































194 


Ignition and Carburetion 





Fig. 86—Side view of a Saurer engine, showing carburetor in 

place. 


• Another device along similar lines, but constructed more simply, is the 
Saurer, shown in Fig. 85. Since this make of truck and touring car, botn of 

which use the vaporizer de¬ 
picted, are well known 
through this country and 
Europe for fuel economy, 
the device must be a suc¬ 
cessful one. As will be 
seen in the sketch, there is 
a common fuel passage 
from the float chamber to 
the two nozzles. These 
have a simple form and 
are set at the lower end of 
a circular mixing chamber, 
the upper part of which 
contains a hinged clack 
valve, which, as drawn, 
cuts off the secondary 
valve, allowing only the 
primary to supply gas to the motor. As the demands of the latter rise, however, 
the valve is gradually drawn off of its seat and into a vertical position. As soon 
as it leaves the seat, so as to allow a slight 
opening on that side, the secondary needle 
valve begins to work, supplying additional 
mixture to the motor. At the vertical po¬ 
sition, both are working to the fullest ex¬ 
tent. To prevent too rapid movement of 
this valve and consequent fluctuation in 
the fuel supply, the dashpot shown at the 
left is used, this being connected by means 
of a cranked arm to the clack valve shaft. 

In this way the 
fluid in the dash- 
pot resists the 
motion of the 
valve in either di¬ 
rection, so that 
whatever that 

movement is, it is positive when once started in either 
direction. 

No auxiliary air valve is fitted to the vaporizer itself 
nor a throttle, but both are used, being formed as a part 
of the inlet pipe. By examining the photograph of this 
carburetor in place. Fig. 86, these will be seen quite 
^.ife DaiSer^no^'ies.' plainly, this being a 35-horsepower Saurer engine. 


Fig. 87—Sectional view of the Daimler car¬ 
buretor, remarkable for its seven jets with in¬ 
dividual vaporizing chambers. 


can do harm? Spread an even layer of bi¬ 
carbonate of soda over such a surface. This 
is a clean white powder which will do no 
harm, and will neutralize every bit of acid 
as quickly as it is spilled. Moreover, this 
substance is cheap, easily obtained and gives 
off no fumes. 

201A. What other neutral agents are used 
in connection with battery acids? Ammonia 
is used frequently, as it is quick, positive 
and very cheap. 

202A. What is its greatest disadvantage? 

The fumes which arise. These render it 
impossible to work about the immediate 
vicinity for some time. 


203A. What happened to a storage bat¬ 
tery, fully charired, which is not used for 
some time and allowed to stand? Its ability 
decreases very quickly. W^hile it may show 
a normal voltage when measured, this will 
drop very quickly when current is used, as 
through a coil, coming down from 6 to 5.6 
or 5.7 volts in the course of a few moments. 

204A. From this, what is a safe rule in 
regards to batteries not used all the time? 
Have them charged very frequently, much 
more so than their apparent condition would 
warrant. 

205A. Aside from making sure of a good 
current supply at all times, has this plan 







































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196 


Ignition and Carhuretion 



Fig. 89—Diagram to show the working 
of the Zenith carburetor. 


Another and later device of the multiple nozzle type is an English form. 
This one, the Daimler, has seven jets, the carburetor as a whole being seen in 
Fig. 87, and the jets with their mixing cham¬ 
bers in Fig. 88. In the former it will be noted 
that a single, circular float chamber supplies 
fuel to a large chamber beneath the jets, so 
that no matter how many are working there 
will be a sufficient supply for all. Above this 
and leading into the vaporizing chamber are 
the seven jets, one centrally located, the others 
around the outside. Each jet except the cen¬ 
tral one used for slow running and starting 
has its own ball-controlled vaporizing passage, 
the movement of the balls according to the 
engine suction determining which ones are 
working and to what extent. 

In addition, there are six other air pas¬ 
sages, also closed by the steel balls. Resting 
on all but one of these is a steel spider weight. 

In this way, normally the center jet is the only 
one in action, while a light suction, as at slow 
speeds, will lift the weight only far enough to 
expose one more. Subsequent stronger suction lifts the balls, and thus opens up 
more jets. Each ball being in its own groove, it must rise vertically, and when 

no longer held up by the suction, must fall 
back into the correct position. Just above 
the balls and weight a hollow distance piece 
is placed, which has the double effect of 
limiting the movement of the weight under 
suction and of forming a kind of venturi¬ 
shaped chamber in which the gases mingle. 
A butterfly throttle is used. 

Although showing two standpipes, and 
thus coming in the same class with the fore¬ 
going—that is, possessing more than one 
spray nozzle—the zenith carburetor shown 
in section in Fig. 89, and in elevation in 
Fig. 90, is remarkable chiefly for the new 
principle which it introduced into modern 
vaporization. In looking at Fig. 89 closely, 
it will be noted that the second nozzle— 
namely, the one toward the left—is not con¬ 
nected directly with the float chamber, but 
that it leads from a vertical chamber or 
standpipe, which in turn is connected with 
Fig. 50-Exterior oj^^the American-made chamber at the bottom. It haS, in 



any other advantages? Yes, it is good for 
the battery itself, as it builds the plates up 
and keeps them built up, resulting in maxi¬ 
mum efficienqy. In fact, this is a good plan 
to follow even with batteries which are used 
a greater part of the time, to have them 
charged more often than their condition 
would appear to call for. 

206A. In case of faulty ignition with stor- 
ag’e batteries, known to be in good condition, 
what would be the first thing- to look for? 
A loose terminal or terminals. Unless these 
are soldered or held mechanically, they are 
very apt to loosen. 

207A. Are there other terminal troubles 
met in ordinary use? The terminals being 


of copper, which oxidizes easily, the copper 
salts or verdigris so formed, particularly on 
the positive terminal, stop the flow of cur¬ 
rent, being a non-conductor. 

208A. How is this removed? By means 
of a strong solution of carbonate of soda, 
or ordinary washing soda. After having 
washed off all the formation with this, so 
the surface is bright and clean, coat with 
vaseline to protect from future similar for¬ 
mations. 

209A. What is the most common source 
of trouble in the ignition wiring? A short 
circuit. 

210A. How is this caused? In any one of 
several ways. The covering of the wiring 













































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198 


Ignition and Carhuretion 


addition, an opening at the top, to which the atmosphere has access. The latter 
will press down the fluid so that it does not rise to any great height, and for this 
reason the fuel will not stand as high in the secondary nozzle as in the primary, 
thus requiring a much stronger suction to draw the fuel from it. 

It is in effect a bypass, directly from the main body of gasoline to the vapor¬ 
izing chamber, but so arranged that fuel will not be drawn from it except at high 
engine demands, which accompany high speeds or heavy working. In this way, 
no material change is made in the action of the vaporizer at slow speeds, but at 
high speeds a large additional supply of fuel, through a shorter and straighter 
passage, is provided. In this way, the extraordinary demands of high speeds are 
met very easily. 


form a very important part of the gasoline system, although’ many 
STRAINERS persons utilize these without knowing of it, because they are in¬ 
corporated in the system. When this is not the case, and the need 
for them arises, it is a simple matter to incorporate one, while they retail at a 
very low price. In general, their greatest utility lies in separating water out from 
the* fuel. When water gets into the gasoline, there is no way of detecting it 
until it reaches the vaporizer, where, of course, it does not vaporize, no gas is 
furnished the cylinders, and the motor commences to miss. It may be removed 
by pouring the fuel into the tank through a strainer of metal, but preferably 
through chamois, as this makes a more thorough job. 

If this be not done, and the fuel is simply poured into the tank without taking 
any precautions, it is important to have a separator or strainer somewhere in the 



system. In many cases, this is placed on the underside of the running board or 
at a similar low point on the car, the pipe from the tank being led down to the 
device at this point and back up to the carburetor level beyond it. 

In those cases in which the strainer is separate, it assumes the form of a 
small casting, inside of which the fuel is forced to turn through two or more 
right-angled bends. In this way, the lighter water is thrown off at the bends, a 
special enlargement of settling chamber being provided there to catch this. The 
underside of this has a drain cock, so that the water may be drained off. In the 
cut. Fig. 91, four different forms of separate strainers are shown, although that 


may liave been soaked through in several 
different ways, or the same may have been 
worn off by constant rubbing against some 
sharp edge. Where the insulation of the 
wires is not good, as on cheap wiring, an¬ 
other wire of a piece of metal may have 
dropped across from a metal part to a por¬ 
tion of this. 

211A. How could the wiring get soaked 
through enough to pass a current of electri¬ 
city? It is not necessary for it to do more 
than soak in, if the liquid is a conductor of 
electricity. Thus, with wiring located under 
the footboards, a leaking lubricator pipe, as 
the one from the oiler to the sightfeed will 


drip on the pipe and continue dripping after 
the insulation is soaked through, until a line 
of oil will reach from the soaked ignition 
cable to the frame or other metal part. 
Then, the motor will begin to miss, or stop, 
and the driver will wonder what is at fault. 

212A. Name another prolific cause of 
short circuiting due to liquids. Every clutch 
throws a certain amount of oil. If the wir¬ 
ing is carried across the space below the 
footboards in a careless manner, without 
covering, this constant throwing will event¬ 
ually reach the ignition cable and soak it, 
the same process outlined above being re¬ 
peated. Similarly, with water, where it is 
used too freely. 































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Ignition and Carhuretion 


200 


shown at B is the most common one. The construction and action of all these is 
evident from the drawings. 

When the separator is incorporated in the vaporizer, it has the form of a 
simple wire gauze set across the middle of the gas passage in the simpler instru¬ 
ments, or it has a circular form, as in the Pierce-Arrow, seen in Fig. 92. Here 
a double purpose is served, for a series of large holes allow of easy flow, while a 
finer, specially made fabric first separates out all water and foreign matter. The 
former might pass small bits of wood or anything like that, but the latter cannot. 
In addition to being readily drained, this has the advantage of being easily and 
quickly removed for cleaning or inspection. Sometimes when the strainer is not 
drained off as often as it should be, enough foreign matfer collects to stop the 
flow of fuel. 

In the DeDion-Bouton carburetor, the arrangement of the strainer is very 
simple, consisting of a hollow cylindrical shell with a flanged collar at one end. 
This is placed in the 
vaporizer with the up¬ 
per end around the 
outlet pipe, the flange 

[Aulitrr Av 

serving as a stop. As 
shown in Fig. 93, a 
spring around the 
whole metal gauze 
shell holds it up in 
place. The action is 
as follows: Gasoline 
enters through the 
pipe A to the fuel 
chamber. From there, 
in order to reach the 
float chamber, it must 
pass through the 
cylindrical gauze /, which serves as an effectual barrier for any water or foreign 
matters. 

The latter are as objectionable as water, for a very small piece of wood, 
paper, or other hard material may stick on the valve seat, thereby holding the 
valve open and preventing the engine from working properly, at the same time 
wasting the fuel. Erratic running of a motor is often caused by this. A small 
piece of wood or other material gets under the gasoline float valve, and holds it 
open until the carburetor floods. Then the engine speeds up, much fuel is drawn 
off, and the wood may be floated off the seat so that the carburetor works prop¬ 
erly for a while. Then it gets back into the seat again, and the whole troublesome 
performance is repeated. These little annoyances make the strainer worth many 
times what it costs to get one and apply it. In the case of watered fuel, they 
serve, in addition, to point out the fact that the motorist is not getting what he is 
paying for. 



-'Cusfat 


Fig. 92—Sectional drawing through the I^ierce carburetor with Reed 

air valve. 


213A. Is it possible to cause such a wir¬ 
ing- short circuit when washing- the car with 
a hose? Yes. If the stream of water is 
turned on too strong, it may pass clear 
through the radiator, in through the air 
openings in the bonnet, or get in to the wir¬ 
ing in other ways and in sufficient quanti¬ 
ties to soak through the insulation and 
cause a short circuit. This applies more 
particularly to the older cars, as on the 
more modern machines, the cabl^ are car¬ 
ried in special conduits and protected in 
other ways from this very thing. 

214A. On an old car with a coil located 
on the dashj when the coil is suspected of 
causing- trouble, how can this be determined 
accurately? Borrow another coil, if possible 
of the same size and make from another 


owner of the same make and model of car. 
Take the suspected coil off and put the good 
one which has been borrowed, in its place, 
being careful of all wiring, all using great 
care not to cause any short circuits. Then, 
try running the engine with a coil which 
has given perfect satisfaction on another 
similar. 

215A. If it acts correctly, the engine fires 
correctly and regularly, and the old coil 
when put back in its place, again causes the 
old trouble and missing? The inference is 
obvious that the old coil is at fault, and 
should be inspected by an expert. If, how¬ 
ever, the'old coil when replaced acts as good 
as did the borrowed one, it is a fair infer¬ 
ence that the trouble lies elsewhere and is 
not in the coiij^ 














































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202 


^ydition and Carhuretion 


When the various working parts of the carburetor are connected by means 
of levers, the operation of the vaporizer as a whole is effected materially. Thus, 
some makers connect the throttle with a lever which opens the needle valve and 
thus allows more fuel to flow as the former is opened, and closes off fuel when 
the throttle is closed in part or whole. The effect of this is to give an increased 

flow of gasoline when the throttle is pulled 
wide open, as when speeding, and just the re¬ 
verse when slowing down and the throttle is 
closed. The former produces more rapid ac¬ 
celeration and greater speed, while the latter 
economizes on the fuel. 

In other cases, where the primary air 
opening is variable by means of a movable and 
hand-controlled member, this is interconnected 
with the throttle so that the amount of air en¬ 
tering at the primary opening varies with the 
variation in the throttle position, the speed of 
the motor of course varying with the latter. 
Another method of interconnection lies in join¬ 
ing the secondary air regulator with the throt¬ 
tle, so that the amount of air admitted at this 
point changes with the position of the throttle 
and the speed of the engine. In the operation 
of the modern carburetor, there are four vari¬ 
ables : The throttle, the needle valve controlling the inflow of fuel, the primary 
air opening, and the secondary air inlet. It is possible to interconnect any two or 
more of these and get a different result from the same vaporizer with these parts 
not interconnected. Some designers favor one method, others the other. Each 
has its advantages and disadvantages. 

is made pos^sible by having a bypass around the float cham- 
EASY STARTING ber and in some cases around the vaporizing space as well. 

The idea of this is to introduce raw gasoline into the cylin¬ 
ders directly, so that a rich mixture which will insure immediate starting will 
always be formed therein. In the Stearns device, shown previously at Fig. 84, 
this consists of a connecting passage between the main body of fuel in the bottom 
of the float chamber and the primary vaporizing chamber. This normally is con¬ 
trolled by a pointed valve, spring seated; but for starting purposes this is pulled 
off its seat and fuel flows through regardless of the position of the float. 

In the Stromberg this consists of an auxiliary nozzle, with its opening near 
the top of the mixing chamber and close to both the air inlet and the throttle 
outlet. In the Carter, it consists of a small and short inclined tube set into the 
vaporizer in such a way as to reach from , below the ordinary vaporizing chamber 
with, its multiple nozzles to the inlet pipe above the throttle valve. Its lower end 
is in such a position as to receive fuel on the very slowest turning of the engine 
shaft, while the position of its upper end above the throttle and independent of it 
is such as to insure a very raw gasoline being introduced into the cylinders. 



Fig. 93—The DeDion fuel inlet detail, 
showing the strainer arrangement. 


216A. If a coil lias Ibeon short circuited 
by water soaking* into the interior, how can 
this be remedied? If that is the only trou¬ 
ble it can be remedied by heating* the coil 
grently near a fire, or as a woman would say, 
by baking it over a slow fire. Too much 
heat will melt the insulation and make it 
worse than before, in fact, render it prac¬ 
tically useless. What is needed is iust 
enough heat to drive out the water and to 
dry the entire interior in a thorough manner. 

217A. Do spark plug’s give much ignition 
trouble? Not as much as will the crude 
and inferior plugs of former times, but 
some. 

218A. What are the two or three princi¬ 
pal troubles due to spark plugs? Sooting, 


due to too copious lubrication as mentioned 
previously; breaking of the porcelain or 
mica insulation, and improper distance be¬ 
tween the points of the spark plug. 

219A. How is broken porcelain caused? 
The constant jarring of the car, passing over 
large stones in the road, or other severe 
bumps, screwing the plugs into the cylinder 
too tightly, as by the use of an 8 or 10-inch 
monkey wrench. Sometimes, too, there is a 
defect in the porcelain which such shocks 
bring out. 

220A. How can this be prevented? Only 
by using care in the selection of the plugs 
in the first place, care in putting them in 
place in the second, and care in driving the 
car. Constant inspection is advisable. It 











































Ignition and Carhuretion 




In the S G V carburetor, shown in Fig. 94, this is carried even farther, a 
small auxiliary pipe being carried from one side of the float chamber to the inlet 
pipe above the throttle. The lower end of this has a supplementary nozzle, while 
there is a small port for the admission of air midway of its length. This is so 
proportioned as to deliver but a small amount of air, the result being a very rich 
mixture. The pipe may be seen in both views of the device, while an enlarged 
sketch of the supplementary jet and the lower end of the tube will be found at 
the left side. 


have considerable influence upon the results, ac- 
SPRAY NOZZLE SHAPES cording to the different designers; consequently, 

we find a considerable number of different shapes 
in common use. Not all of these can be shown and described; in fact, it would 
serve no useful purpose to do so. In Fig. 95, four of the principal ones are seen, 
these being designated as A, B, C and 
D. The first consists of a plain circu¬ 
lar passage reduced in diameter toward 
the top, where a hole is cut through 
which varies in size from the bottom 
upward. The effect of the combina¬ 
tion, then, is two sections of cones 
joined together so as to diverge to¬ 
ward and away from the smallest 
point. The effect of this is to throw 
the spray out in a gradually enlarging 
and widening stream. This form 
needs no needle valve, and is not ad¬ 
justable, except as the nozzle may be 
taken out and the hole drilled larger 
or replaced with another having a 
smaller opening. It is the most popu¬ 
lar form, as will be noted by looking 
back over the following carburetors 
described herein which have it: Strom- 
berg. Fig. 77; Peerless, 78; Stearns, 

84; Daimler, 88; Zenith, 89; DeDion, 

93, and S G V, 94; while G & A, Fig. 

76, is a slight modification of this in 
that it has a straight hole and a straight outer end. 

When a movable valve is set into the inside of this so that it seats on the 
lower part of the smallest part of the opening, the form B is made. This has a 
double effect; it makes the opening variable at will by screwing the valve up or 
down, thus decreasing or increasing the amount of liquid which can pass, and, 
in addition, it changes the form of the spray. The latter is brought about by 
taking out the center of the hole, so to speak, this being occupied by the point of 
the needle valve. In addition, the sides of the valve cause the fluid to spread out 
more in escaping past it, so that a wider spray is formed. This form is easily 








1 ^ It 


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Fig. 94—How the S G V carburetor is arranged 
with an auxiliary jet. 


is possible to run along the line of eight 
plugs (two per cylinder with a four-cylinder 
engine), and give each one a light sideways 
movement in less time than it takes to tell 
it. If all plugs are right none of them will 
move. If any move, even slightly, they 
should be inspected with care. 

221A. Is mica as easily broken as por¬ 
celain? No, it is not and many motorists 
make a practice of selecting all mica plugs 
for this reason. In general, porcelain is 
considered a better insulator, but the mica 
is sufficiently good so that no difference 
can be noted. 

222A. ,What other members of the igni¬ 
tion system are likely to cause trouble? The 

breaker box of the magneto if the car has 


ma.gneto ignition, or what corresponds to, it 
in a battery system, the distributor. 

223A. How do these cause trouble? 

Where the ring of each is normally insu¬ 
lated except at the four (or six) points 
where a contact is desired, some liquid gets 
in and causes a short circuit. 

224A. What is the most usual form of 
this? Water may get in but the usual 
trouble is due to too copious lubrication. 
A distributor, timer, breaker box or other 
similar part needs only a drop of oil about 
every 300 miles. Some instruments are built 
to use even less than this. 

225A. How can fuel consumption be im¬ 
proved usually? By providing additional 





































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206 


Ignition and Carhuretion 






second in popularity, if not actually first, when the very lowest priced instruments 
are eliminated. It is used on these makes which have been illustrated and de¬ 
scribed previously: Fig. 8i; Saurer, Fig. 85, and Pierce-Arrow, Fig. 92. 

If the needle valve be turned upside 
down and screwed down on the open¬ 
ing from above, its point being hol¬ 
lowed out in addition, the form of C 
is made. This extra hollowing out 
and the position of the needle above 
where it deflects some of the spray 
outward causes the further enlarge- 
jr- -ri ^ ^ ment of the stream as compared with 

^ This form is used by many mak¬ 

ers, including: Holley, Fig. 80, and 
Kingston, Fig. 82. 

When the sides of the needle are 
grooved and this set down into the top of the nozzle, it forms type D. This is 
non-adjustable, but has as many openings as there are grooves in the tapered por¬ 
tion, usually six or eight. As these may be made very small, the result is a finely 
divided and well-distributed spray. No carburetor with this form has been shown, 
but the Longuemare (Fig. 79) is a modification of this, the difference lying in the 
holes being turned horizontally while the inner passage has a spray needle on the 
order of B. - 



Fig. 95—Four of the 
nozzles now 


common types of 
generally used. 


spray 


have a number of different forms and shapes, varying' arrange- 
AIR VALVES ments of spring and adjustment, also differ in nature and method 
of operation. In the flat valve type, we find them arranged verti¬ 
cally with the valve working both upward and downward, horizontally and in¬ 
clined. Then, there is the cone seat, which is found in all the same variations, the 
flat reed working both horizontally and vertically (as in the Pierce-Arrow, Fig. 
92), the balls working vertically only the swinging disc and the rotating piston. 
Each one of these has its advantages which, in the opinion of the designer, make 

it preferable to all the others. - 

vary widely, practically every different make of motor 
INLET PIPE SHAPES having a form widely different from all the others. Of 

late years the shape, length, number of bends, and 
other details of inlet pipes have been given much attention, in order to reduce the 
gas friction to a minimum and to supply a perfectly even and regular mixture to 
all cylinders. Formerly, when this was not the case, a number of firms used a form 
of pipe in which all cylinders drew from a single long manifold with the carburetor 
at one end. The result of this arrangement was practically to starve the cylinder 
at the far end, the other three sucking out all the gas formed as fast as the car¬ 
buretor could furnish it. In general, four-cylinder motors now have a two- 
branched pipe and six-cylinder engines a three-branched shape, thus equalizing the 
distance from the carburetor to each one of the cylinders. 


air to the intake system. In general, car¬ 
buretors do not give sufficient air, in fact 
many of them can not be set to give all 
around satisfaction and still furnish the fuel 
mixture with sufficient air. 

226A. In what way can this he done? 
Some kind of an air valve can be built into 
the inlet pipe above the carburetor, with a 
lever or wire to the driver’s compartment 
to allow of his pulling it into use or throw¬ 
ing it out, as he considers the running of 
the car shows a need. 

227A. In what other manner may fuel 
consumption he lowered? In a number of 
older makes of cars, the size, shape and 
arrangement of the vaporizing space is such 
that much fuel is drawn in which is not 
vaporized. This can be remedied by the 
introduction of a small spiral, helix or ro¬ 


tating wheel which will beat up the fuel 
particles into a simaller size. This enables 
quicker and more thorough vaporization. 
Somewhat the same result may be obtained 
by the introduction of one or more fine 
brass gauze screens across the interior of 
the inlet pipe. Any of these schemes will 
have an effect on the fuel consumption. 

228A. When an engine refuses to start, 
and the only clue to trouble is that the car 
has just been washed, what would be sus¬ 
pected? Probably some water has gotten 
into the carburetor, either directly or 
through the air valve. 

229A. How can this be remedied? If 

there is no other simpler way available, 
draw off what fuel is in the carburetor. 
Then let fresh fiow in, and the engine usu¬ 
ally will start on the first or second turn. 



































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CHAPTER VI. 


Lubrication and Cooling. 

Next to having a car and the required parts to make it run, as proper car- 
buretion and ignition systems, etc., the most important thing is to have it lubri¬ 
cated properly so that it will continue to run indefinitely. To many persons the 
instructions given by the makers of cars to oil this part once a week, grease that 
every 500 miles and so forth, are more or less attempts on the part of the maker 
to tell the user how he must use the car and in part constitutes one of his tricks 
to protect his own interests. Such is far from the actual case; the manufacturer’s 
responsibility ceases as soon as the sale is made and the car delivered; he tells 
its owner how and when to lubricate solely for the latter’s protection. 


When any part rotates or slides within or in contact with 
LUBRICATING, another, friction is set up. In time, this will wear out the 
softer of the two parts, and it will have to be replaced with 
another, when the wearing process will start over. A lubricant placed between 
the two surfaces reduces the amount of friction and wear, in an amount which 
varies with the thoroughness of the process and the quality of the lubricant, to¬ 
gether with its suitability to the works. Friction consumes power, and since 
this power does no useful work, it is wasted. In a case, like that of the auto¬ 
mobile engine, in which the maximum power output is a fixed quantity which 
cannot be increased, all friction which is set up wastes a certain portion of that 
power, making so much less available for speed, carrying capacity or hill climb¬ 
ing. The inverse of this is equally true if friction be eliminated as much as pos¬ 
sible through perfect or nearly perfect lubrication; there will be more power 
available for speed and similar purposes. 

The purpose of lubrication on the motor car, then, is twofold: First, to 
reduce friction to ^ minimum and thus give the maximum amount of power for 
propelling the car and its load; second, to reduce wear to a minimum and thus 
cause the parts to last for a greater length of time, reducing the cost of mainte¬ 
nance. From this it is apparent that everyone who deliberately neglects the 
lubrication of his car or its parts is no one’s enemy but his own, and that he 
will pay for all such neglect in greater fuel bills, slower speed, less power, and 
greater and more frequent repair bills, to say nothing of losing the- use of the 
car when it is being repaired or having a part replaced by a new one. 


How to Remedy the Most Common Automobile Troubles 


240. What is lubrication, and what is its 
purpose? Lubrication is a method of keep¬ 
ing- two metal part.s, one of which rotates or 
slides within the other, from actually touch¬ 
ing one another while the rotation or sliding 
is going on. This is done by means of oily, 
'greasy or unctuous substances which form a 
minute protective film between the two sur¬ 
faces. 

241. If this film of lubricant be absent, 
broken or interrupted, what happens? The 

rubbing of the metals one on the other heats 
them, they expand until the inner one seizes 


upon the outer, when no further sliding or 
rotation is possible.. 

242. Does this always happen? No; in 

some cases one metal is much softer than the 
other. In that case, the softer one is cut 
away or worn. 

243. How does this result? In a short 
time, the softer metal is cut away so badly 
that the one which rotates or slides is not 
guided properly, and thrashes around. This 
may do nothing but make a noise, or it may 
be vital to the action that the motion be con¬ 
tinued in a straight line, in which case me- 


208 





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210 


Lubrication and Cooling 


Considering the car as a whole, there are four main 
FOUR LUBRICATING groups to be taken into account in the lul)ricating 
GROUPS, scheme. These are: The engine and its parts and ac¬ 

cessories ; the transmission complete; the rear axle and 
differential gear, including the driving shaft; the chassis parts not included in 
these, notably all operating lever parts, etc. In a few rare cases, the transmission 
is placed on the rear axle, so that Groups Two and Three become one; but as 
these cases are so rare, the four will be considered as outlined. 


Naturally the engine is the most important part, and, 
OILING THE ENGINE, as such, receives the greatest amount of lubricating 

care. In this there are two general methods for the 
interior parts, the exterior parts being taken care of by grease cups and oil cups 
conveniently located, and to be mentioned later. The two interior lubricating 
methods are called the splash system and the pressure system, from the methods 
of applying the oil. There is, it is true, a combination of the two—in fact, 
practically all of the pressure feed systems use some splash. In the splash 
system, the lower part of the crankcase is so made as to have a series of pockets 
beneath the lower ends of the rotating connecting rods, into which the latter dip 
for some distance. When oil is poured into the crankcase in sufficient quantity, 
it rises in these pockets to a higher level than the lowest point of the rotating 
rod end. This results in the rod dipping into the oil at each turn. A scoop or 
small pipe is placed on the end of the rod in such a way that its open or receiv¬ 
ing end is toward the oil—that is, is presented to it first. In this way, oil is 
taken up at every turn. When the rod lifts somewhat higher, this flows down 
to the bearing; in this it is aided greatly by the inertia of the stationary oil, which 
tends to force the oil inward or to the bearing. Between the two a considerable 
amount gets to the bearings of the connecting rod. 

From this the crankshaft is drilled with interior holes to lead the surplus oil 
to the main or stationary bearings, where other radial holes lead it outward. 
Such is the pressrire exerted by the two forces, when the engine is running at 
high speeds—say, 2,000 revolutions a minute—that a considerable amount reaches 
these bearings in some cases too much. In addition, the connecting rod has a 
central drilled hole or an oil pipe which leads a portion of the surplus up to the 
piston, whence it flows out through the hollow piston pin to the cylinder walls, 
thus lubricating them. 

Entire dependence is not placed upon this method of lubricating the walls, 
for the rod ends in striking the surface of the oil in the crankcase splash up a 
great deal of oil, which in the form of a mist fills the entire open space in the 
case and the lower ends of all cylinders. When this mist falls on the lower parts 
of the cylinder walls, it is picked up by the pistons at each stroke and carried up 
to the higher parts, thus lubricating practically the whole surface of the cylinders. 

One objection which has been raised against this method is that it is waste¬ 
ful of oil; a considerable amount must be placed in the crankcase to start with, 
and a minimum level maintained, else the parts will not be lubricated at. all. 
Again, on a down grade, if the interior of the case forms but one well, the oil all 


chanical trouble results as soon as one part 
is worn. 

244. Suppose a piston stick in a cylinder 
and stops the engfine? The cause is a lack 
of lubricant, as pointed out above. 

245. How may this he remedied? It de¬ 
pends upon the seriousness of the case; if 
the piston is badly stuck, it should be al¬ 
lowed to cool a little, then kerosene or other 
thin lubricant poured upon it in^ quantities. 
When this has had time to soak down be¬ 
tween the two metal walls in contact, it is 
possible that the two may be separated by 
rotating the engine by hand. 

246. What should he done to prevent a 
repetition of this? The old reservoir should 
be examined, the oil pump and its drive 


looked over for defects or breaks, all pipes 
should be inspected, and finally the lubricant 
itself examined. 

247. What could he the matter with the oil 
that would cause this trouble? It might be 
full of dirt, sand or other foreign matter 
which was not noticeable when pouring in 
the fairly thick liquid, but which soon cut 
the cylinder walls when introduced there. 
Further, the oil might be so thick or so thin 
for the work it had to do as to be entirely 
unsuitable. Thus it would be possible to use 
an oil so thick that it would not pass between 
the cylinder walls and the piston. Or an 
unusually light, thin oil might have been 
used which did not have sufficient body or 
enough lubricating quality to be suitable for 
this severe work. 












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212 


Lubrication and Cooling 


flows to the front so that the forward cylinders get an excess and the rear ones 
get none. On an up grade, the reverse happens: All the oil flows to the rear end 
of the case, the result being that the rear cylinders get too much and the front 
ones are starved. This objection has been met by making the case in such a way 
that the rods dip into small individual troughs, so that no matter what the grade, 
each one has its supply of oil. 

Another objection is that the motor does not get a great deal of oil when 
pulling hard at comparatively slow speeds, as in heavy going or on steep hills, 
because the splash method depends upon the motor speed to deliver the oil and 
at slow speeds it would produce small amounts. This also has been met by mak¬ 
ing the individual troughs movable and connecting them to the throttle or foot 
accelerator. When the latter is opened wide, the troughs are brought up close to 
the rods, with the result that they dip deeper and splash more. It is a refine¬ 
ment, however, which is found only on the more expensive motors. 


the oil may be pumped directly to the bearings, and then 
IN THE PRES“ through internal oil holes to the connecting rod bearings, and 
SURE SYSTEM, from there up the rod to the piston pin and cylinders. In 

addition, other leads go to the cylinder walls directly, as well 
as to the timing gears, the water pump and other accessories. In Fig. 96, some 
of the methods in use are shown. At A, the splash system is seen, in which the 
bottom of the case forms a deep well, but a lighter partition above it forms 
troughs for the individual rods. The scoop is plainly seen. The form at B has a 



Fig. 96.—The Three Forms of Oil Scoops Used in Motor Lubrication Systems, and the Way in Which 

They Operate. 


double crankcase, the individual troughs being formed in this while an overflow 
carries the excess down to the well below. This form requires a pump to keep 
the troughs filled; at C one sees a pressure system without splash, the drilling 
through the shaft and rod being quite plain. When there is an excess of oil to 
either the main or connecting-rod bearings, this drips down into the lower part of 
the case, where it filters through the screen shown and reaches the well below, 
whence the pump draws its supply. 


248. Does this apply to other parts beside 
cylinders? Yes; practically all important ro¬ 
tating or sliding parts of the _ engine and 
transmission of modern cars are 'made with a 
running clearance of less than 3/1000 of an 
inch, and a great many of them with less 
than 2/1000. Into this extremely small space, 
divided by two if it be a round shaft in a 
round hole, the lubricant must be forced, and 
there it must do its work. 

249. What is this work? It must prevent 
wear where one metal is softer than another, 
and reduce friction. The former reduces re¬ 
pair expense, the latter makes the car run 
better and faster on the same amount of 
fuel and oil. Both make for cheaper motor¬ 
ing. 

250. In general, is engine lubrication the 
same as that for transmissions and other 


parts? No; practically every separate group 
has its own form of lubrication and kind of 
lubricant. These are determined by the 
amount and character of the work it does, 
the nature of the workmanship and the fine¬ 
ness of the fit, and its exposure to the ele¬ 
ments which might wash or carry away the 
lubricant provided. 

251. Suppose an oil hole becomes stopped 

up? It should be cleaned out as soon as dis¬ 
covered, care being taken not to get any of 
the dirt into the bearing. In such a case, an 
extra amount of oil is advisable in order to 
make up for a possible previous lack while 
the hole was stopped up. 

252. What about other points where no 
oil hole, grease cup, or other provision has 
been made? They should be lubricated just 
the same. Wherever there is a rotating, slid¬ 
ing or moving part, it should have some kind 





































































J 


Lubrication and Cooling 




is the so-called gravity form, in which a large tank is 
ANOTHER SYSTEM, placed high up on the cylinders or other part of the 
USING PRESSURE, motor, the various leads proceeding from this. It is 

kept filled by a pump, this doing nothing but draw oil 
from the well in the bottom of the case and force it to the tank. From the tank 
the pressure of gravity is used to circulate the lubricant. This form, as shown 
in Fig. 97, has the great advantage that in case of accident to the pump, such as 
a shaft shearing off, or the passage from the well clogging up, the tank full will 
continue to feed oil to the various bearings, and, since this is very large, the 
motor would run a good many hundred miles with the pump out of commission. 
It has a filling plug on the top, so that when the gauge glass on the dash showed 
the driver that the pump was not working, more oil could be put into the tank 
and the pump neglected 
for the time being. 

This location of the 
filling plug is a much 
more convenient one 
than when placed low¬ 
er down on the crank¬ 
case. 

A slight variation 
from the previously 
mentioned pump sys¬ 
tem lies in the use of a 
pump for every lead— 
that is, for lo bearings 
to be oiled, lo pumps. 

These are enclosed in a 
large case, are driven 
off a single shaft, have 

fhpir own nil well Oiling System, in Which the Tank Placed on the Cylinders 

, , , , . Feeds all Bearings by Gravity, Being Kept Filled by a Pump. 

whence they draw their 

supplies, and consequently have the filling plug for the whole system. This form 
is called a mechanical lubricator, and generally has a telltale on top for each lead. 
If, then, any one part is supposed to be getting less than its share of oil, the tell¬ 
tale would show this to be true or otherwise. Such a lubricator generally is 
placed under the hood, very close to the motor, so as to drive off one of the ac¬ 
cessory driving shafts, and also so as to make the numerous oil pipes as short as 
possible. Such a system has many points to recommend, as the pumps may be 
set to deliver a large quantity at first when the motor is new and stiff, and con¬ 
sequently needs plenty, while later this quantity can be reduced for economy’s 
sake. Fig. 98 presents a view of an oiler of this type with four leads for that 
number of bearings. The oil gauge glass at the corner will be noted, the filling 
cap on top, the supply pipe from the crankcase by means of which the used oil, 
after filtering, is returned to the oiler so as to be used over again, and the method 
of driving the lubricator from the accessory shaft. 



of a lubricant, administered at suitable in¬ 
tervals. 

253. Drivingr late in the fall when the tem¬ 
perature ffets low, the motor acts slug’g’ish? 

The cold weather has thickened the oil to a 
point where it is not as suitable as it should 
be. Draw all of it off and refill with a lighter 
grade having a much lower freezing point. 
Ordinary good summer oil will have a cold 
test of 30 degrees or higher, but winter oils 
should have a cold test of 20 degrees or 
lower. 

254. Which oils contain the most carbon? 

It is difficult to say; in general, dark oils 
have more carbon, but this is not always the 
case. 


255. Can this be filtered out? In manufac¬ 
turing, yes; but by the ordinary user, no. 
It is wise, however, to filter all oils not ob¬ 
tained in sealed cans. This may be done by 
running it through cheesecloth or fine mesh 
wire cloth, or both, before using. With 
heavy oils this is more or less of a long, 
dirty job, but the superior results make it 
well worth while. 

256. What is the general division of lubri¬ 
cants for the various car units? Oil for the 

motor, heavy oils or grease for the transmis¬ 
sion, grease for everything else. 

257. Is this a firm rule, always observed? 

Not at all; it is -simply a rough statement. 
Many use hea-^' oil for the motor, many 


























































































































































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216 


Lubrication and Cooling 



The grease cups for the water pump can be seen, the additional one for the 
rear bearing of the front end of the shaft, the oil cups on top of the motor for the 

rocket arms of the valve 
system, and others. It is 
by means of this kind that 
the exterior bearings of 
the motor are lubricated. 

A section through the 
crankcase of a motor, with 
which is combined both 
the clutch and transmis¬ 
sion—that is, a unit pow¬ 
er plant—is seen in Fig. 
99, and an end view of the 
same at Fig. lOO. The 
former shows how a pool 
of oil is maintained in the 
rear end of the crankcase, 
into which the flywheel 
dips, the rotation of this 
being used to circulate the 
same. By means of this, 
it is thrown onto the silent 
chain which drives the 
camshaft and also into the gear compartment. In the latter the gears themselves 


Fig. 98.—An Oiling System, in Which a Mechanical Lubricator with 
Four Feeds Forms the Basis. This is Positively Driven 
from the Magneto Shaft. 



Fig. 99.—Side View of a Successful System of Lubrication in Which the Flywheel 
Really Circulates the Oil, Forcing It Into Various Pipes, Which Lead to 
the Different Bearings and Parts to Be Oiled. 

agitate the oil and keep all parts well lubricated, the oil being forced over into 
the universal joint from the casing of which a pipe returns the excess to the well. 


others add graphite to the oils used. A num¬ 
ber of engine parts, as fan shaft, pump shaft 
and others, are lubricated with grease. Not 
all transmissions, are greased. Many prefer a 
graphite grease, still others like a heavy oil, 
some of the most successful use a light oil 
and grease combination, while others oil the 
bearings and grease the gears. For the rear 
axle, there is an equal divergence of opin¬ 
ion; some want oil, others heavy oil, some 
grease alone, others heavy oil and grease. It 
is the same way with other parts; different 
makers call for a different lubricant. The 
general rule given above, however, holds to a 
surprising percentage of all the cars. 


258. What happens if the oil or grease is 
omitted from the interior of the transmis- 
cion? In this case, the lubricant is not uti¬ 
lized so much to prevent friction, as to si¬ 
lence the noise of the gears meshing with 
one another, and the other noise due to shift¬ 
ing them into and out of mesh constantly. 
Of course, the lubricant used does act in the 
ordinary manner for the transmission bear¬ 
ings and shafts, but the filling of the gear- 
case is done for the purpose of obtaining si¬ 
lence. The answer to the question, then, is 
the omission of this would make the center 
part of the car very noisy. 














































"9 


t i 


t 


• 


« 




Lubrication and Cooling 


^218 


OilRllerC^' 
T^rotties 


For the main parts of the motor, a distributor (shown more plainly in the end 
view) takes the oil at the enj^ine end of a large-sized tube, and then forces it 
through a special passage bored in the crankcase for this purpose. Off from this, 
there are other passages which lead the oil down to the shaft bearings, whence 
internal drilling, same as that previously described, leads it down to the connect¬ 
ing rods. The same distributor delivers oil in a constant stream to the cylinders, 
by means of a passage bored between each pair, this supplying both. On the 
bearings for the camshaft, a form of shelf catches a quantity of the oil inside 
the case and holds it, thus forming a source of supply for the bearings of the 
camshaft. By examining these two figures in detail, an excellent idea of the 
lubricating system of this 1914 
car will be gained. For one 
thing, particular attention is 
called to the filling cap and 
throttle for this system shown 
in the end view. The latter is 
connected up to the throttle lev¬ 
er in such a way that at high 
speeds a considerable stream of 
oil is turned into the cylinders 
and a larger amount than usual 
into the main bearings, while at 
slow rates of travel both are cut 
down somewhat. This makes 
for efficiency and economy. 

A somewhat similar system, 
yet differing widely in details, 
for it applies only to the motor, 
the clutch and transmission be¬ 
ing separate units, is that shown 
in Fig. loi. This is a force- 
feed circulating system, in 
which a single pump located at 
the bottom of the case takes its 
supply therefrom, pumps it 
through a tube to the center of 
each of the main bearings of 
the hollow crankshaft, whence 
it reaches all bearings, connecting rods, piston pins, and piston. In addition, a 
separate lead supplies the timing gears at the front of the motor, while a bypass 
to a gauge on the dash shows the operator the workings of the system. Filler and 
level indicator may be seen as well. 

In this, the drilling of the crankshaft and the methods of plugging the 
openings where the drills enter will be noted, as the drawing makes this point 
especially clear. This is a complicated job, requiring much individual skill as 
well as special apparatus designed for this particular purpose. 



OilWeE 


Fig. 100 


Showing the 


End View of the System Shown in Fig. 99, 
Distributor and Throttle, Unique 
Features of This Arrangement. 


259. Would anything' else happen if it 
were omitted? To a certain extent, it pre¬ 
vents grinding, chipping, and cutting of the 
gears. Were it omitted, this action of the 
dry metal gear faces one on the other would 
be very great, and probably would wear out 
the gears in a surprisingly short time, ne¬ 
cessitating their renewal. 

260. What good is graphite and how does 
it improve lubrication? Graphite seems to 
have a glazing action on any metal part to 
the surface of which it is applied as a lu¬ 
bricant. To a certain extent, even the most 
finely finished parts have a rough surface, 
and the graphite seems to fill in these rough 
places and stay there, so that it renders the 
surfaces on which it is used perfectly and 
permanently smooth. This gives superior lu¬ 


brication action, for, after the graphite has 
made the surface of the shaft or other part 
perfectly smooth, it runs with less friction. 
As a consequence, lessened oil consumption is 
claimed for it. 

261. When used with oils, as for cylinders, 

how is it put in? A tablespoonful of the fin¬ 
est grade obtainable is added to each quart of 
cylinder oil, this being utilized in the usual 
manner. After the graphite has been used for 
a short time, it is claimed that the flow of 
oil may be reduced very materially. Also, 
after the engine is well "loaded” with the 
graphite, the amount of this may be reduced 
to two tablespoonfuls to the gallon. All this 
has reference to cylinder use; for other pur¬ 
poses, other grades and different proportions 
are used. 
























Lubrication and Cooling 


220 


Usually the transmission is lubricated by occasional 
OILING TRANSMISSION, fillings of its case, by hand, with a fairly heavy 

grease, graphite, or oil, or combinations of these. 
The quantity put in depends upon the size of the case and its capacity. There 
are special transmission lubricants, and many makers go further and have a lubri¬ 
cant different from anything else on the market put up for especial use in their 
transmissions. It is doubtful if this is necessary, for they are the same kind of 
gears, consequently they have the same requirements. In general, when a trans¬ 
mission has been fixed properly, as outlined above, aqd to the maker’s exact direc¬ 
tions, this should be good for a month’s or a thousand miles’ running. At the 
end of that time, the case should be drained as far as possible, the balance flushed 
out with kerosene, and a new filling of lubricant, new and fresh, put in. The 
same general proceed- _ 


ing applies to the dif¬ 
ferential housing with 
the gears within. If 
this isi combined with 
the transmission, it 
makes but one such 
dirty job, but when 
the two are separate 
units, there will be 
two such jobs. 

This is well worth 
doing, and is advo¬ 
cated for the motor¬ 
ist’s sake and not as a 
matter of theory. A 
considerable quantity 
of dirt gets into the 

transmission case, not Fig. lOl—A Well-Known Force-Feed System, in Which a Pump Forces 
a ic the Lubricant Through Hollow Pipes to the Crankshaft, 

d lliue meidl IS worn Drilled Out for This Purpose. 

off the gears m grind¬ 
ing one against the other for i,ooo miles, and in the numerous shifting done in 
that distance. These particles get into the lubricant, and by it are carried in 
between the teeth of the gears and thus are ground into their surfaces, or are 
carried into the bearings and may do damage there. By draining off the old stuff 
after each i,ooo miles run, it is possible to keep these minor wearing quantities 
down to a minimum, while at the same time washing out with the kerosene car¬ 
ries off all the small particles present, and gives the driver a good opportunity to 
examine the various gears. 

This same draining and cleaning process should be applied to the engine 
crankcase, to the timing gear case, to the front wheel bearings, and to the uni¬ 
versal joints. The interval—i,ooo miles, or a month’s running—is about right 
for these, although the lubricant might vary. Thus, while the transmission and 
differential contained mostly grease, the universal joints might be filled with 



262. In the absence of any set rule for 
transmission, how would the driver lubricate 
this? Make a mixture of the oil for use for 
the motor and a g-ood grade of cup grease, 
using half of each. 

263. How is the clutch lubricated? Its 

surface should never be lubricated with any 
kind of ordinary lubricant. The leather may 
be softened if it gets hard or stiff, however, 
with a little Neatsfoot oil, which is more of 
a leather dressing than a lubricant. The 
clutch operating parts should have a heavy 
oil applied about once in each 400 miles or 
every two months. 

264. In case oil does get on the clutch so 
that it slips continuously, what can be* done? 
If this is not noticed until the driver gets 


out into the country, some veiy fine powder, 
as the talcum for inner tubes, ‘may be thrown 
in on its surface. Lacking that, fine sand or 
dirt from the roadside is better than a slip¬ 
ping clutch. If the latter be used, as soon 
as it is feasible to do so, the driv'er should 
get some kerosene and wash the clutch out 
thoroughly with it. If he has kerosene with 
him on the road, when the slipping is noticed 
a little gasoline may be poured onto the sur¬ 
face and allowed to work all around it. This 
mixes with and dilutes the oil. Then the 
whole may be washed off with the kerosene. 
A good plan is to wash the diluted oil out 
with water, if a hose be handy, and then use 
the kerosene later to clean off the water and 
the last traces of the oil or gasoline. 










































































































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QQQ 


Lubrication and Cooling 


graphite grease, the crankcase with the lightest of cylinder oils, and the timing 
gear case with a slightly heavier oil. In all cases, clean out all lubricant, use kero¬ 
sene to flush, and then refill. 

Many persons say that this used oil cannot be used again, but such is not 
the case. By saving the lighter oils separate from the heavier ones, and filtering 
each kind carefully and separately, they can be used again by mixing with the 
next heavier form for ditferent parts of the car which require a heavier lubri¬ 
cant. In doing this, not less than half new lubricant should be used. When it 
comes to the heaviest form, that can only be used again with grease, while drawn- 
otf grease cannot be used again. Generally speaking, this is not good economy, 
for, although good oil is more expensive, using over a dirty lot of it which would 
ruin a bearing or two simply for the sake of saving lo cents’ worth of lubricant 
is poor economy. 



Of the various grease and oil cups on the axles, the driver 
OILING AXLES, should have a regular routine for these, and go over them in 

order, filling each grease or oil cup as soon as it becomes 
empty. Taking up the rear axle first, Fig. 102 shows a truck rear axle and 
countershaft, the 
former answering 
equally well for the 
rear axle, and the 


whole 


group 
and 


for 


trucks and chain- 
driven cars. On 
this, the arrow 
marked A points to 
the large grease 
cup which forces 
grease to the main 
bearings of the 
wheels. Twice a 
month, or every 
500 or 600 miles, 
these wheel bear¬ 
ings should be 
smeared with 

grease, in addition to which the cup will supply all needs. It should have part of 
a turn each time before going out. The small oiler at B is for the bearing of the 
brake cam lever at that point, its size indicating its relative importance. It should 
have a drop of oil every 300 or 400 miles. The slightly larger cup at the frame 
bearing for the brake operating rod should have the same treatment, with two 
drops instead of one. 


Fig. 102.-—A Motor Truck Rear Axle and Countershaft, Showing the Places 
to Be Lubricated and the Manner in Which It Is Accomplished. 


265. If the steering* g'ear works hard? 

This may be because of a lack of lubricarft. 
The steering gear usually is packed with a 
heavy grease about twice a season; some but 
once a year. If this grease gets hard inside 
the case, it is almost useless. This fre¬ 
quently happens, and as soon as it is partly 
removed and partly cut by means of a thick 
oil of more fluid grease, the hard turning 
disappears. In an extreme case, the interior 
of the case might be dry, either through us¬ 
ing up too small a supply, or through leak¬ 
age, 

266. When an engine using* the splash sys¬ 
tem of oil smokes all the time, what can he 
done? Reduce the amount of oil in the crank 
case gradually, drawing off a little at a time, 
until the smoking discontinues. In doing 
this, use great care to note that the cylin¬ 
ders and other internal parts are getting 


enough before taking the last two or three 
drafts. 

267. When a motor with a g*ravity feed 
tank smokes too much? In this case, the flow 
from the gravity tank to the cylinders should 
be reduced. If there is no cock or other ad¬ 
justing means, a gasket should be put into 
the pipe joint with a smaller hole than that 
through the pipe. This will reduce the flow 
in proportion of the hole in the gasket to 
the previous internal diameter of the pipe. 

268. When a system with a mechanical 
oiler smokes too much? Open the oiler and 
cut down the throw of the small pistons on 
each of the various feeds. 

269. With a pressure pump oiling* system 
smoking*? Cut down the flow—at the pump, 
if possible; if not, follow the gasket method 
outlined in 267. 










Lubrication and Cooling 




the oil cups at the bottom pivots D, and at the upper bearings 
ON THE JACK" points E, should have the same treatment. The grease cup at 
SHAFT BRAKE, the forward end of the radius rod F should have half a turn 

every 500 to 600 miles, while the larger grease cup G for the 
countershaft outer bearing (hidden from view, but located at about the point of 
the arrow), should have almost one full turn each day. 


is handled in the same way. Fig. 103 shows one of these, 
THE FRONT AXLE this, like Fig. 102, being of a well-known 3-ton truck. 

Except for size and materials, it is the same as any front 
axle, and hence will answer for lubrication directions. Although these cups look 
small, they are all grease cups, and should be turned up each day or when the 
day’s work is short, every 150 to 200 miles for touring car, 80 to 100 miles for 
the truck. The wheel bearings have been mentioned previously. The cups A 
are for the inside bearings on which the steering knuckle turns, those at B are for 



Fig. 103.—Front Axle of the Same Truck as Shown in Fig. 102, Indicating the 

Grease and Oil Cups. 

the joints in the system of operating rods, and the bigger one at C lubricates the 
ball or universal connection with the steering rod. The springs are not shown, but 
the shackles carry grease cups, which should have half a turn every day, while 
the leaves should be lubricated every i,ooo miles. This is accomplished by jack¬ 
ing up the frame, above the springs, and separating the leaves by means of a 
screwdriver or other pointed instrument of special spring leaf spreading tool. 
Then the graphite grease—or pure graphite, some prefer—is introduced, the 
quantity depending upon the condition of the springs. 


of the operating levers and pedals, for speed changing, brakes, 
THE BEARINGS clutch, accelerator, and others, should have oil about every 
AND JOINTS 400 to 500 miles, the same applying to the other joints in the 

operating rod systems. The clutch shifter—that is, the part 
connected to the clutch and actually causing its movement—should have attention 
more often for best results. The steering gear case is usually filled up with 
grease or graphite grease once or twice a season, although the makers advise 


270. Wliy is it necessary to cool automo¬ 
bile engines? So much heat is generate'l in 
the explosion and expansion of the gases that 
not all of it can be carried off in the exhaust. 
The explosions come so close together that 
the cylinder walls do not have time enough to 
carry off the remaining heat by convection or 
conduction, consequently it piles up, so to 
speak, and the walls get hotter and hotter, 
unless some agent be used to carry this heat 
away practically as fast as it is created. 

271. If this is not done, what happens? 
The piston expands more quickly than the 
cylinder, and soon reaches a point where it is 
as large as the hole in which it is sliding. 
Consequently, it refuses to slide any more, or 
sticks. When a piston Seizes in this manner. 


it is a serious matter and wants attention of 
an expert immediately. 

272. How can this situation be brought 
about? By forgetting the cooling water when 
that gets low, or when there is a leak in the 
system, or when the work has been unusually 
hard, calling for a high speed on the part of 
the engine for a long period of time. 

273. How can a similar situation be 
brought about on an air-cooled engine? By &, 

break in the blower driving shaft, if the 
motor is blower cooled; by a paper or any- 
thing of the sort stopping up the holes in 
the front end of the motor compartment 
where the air enters, or by cutting off the 
air supply in any way. 









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S26 


Luhricdtion and Cooling 


attention every i,ooo miles, or once a month. If the lubricant is not too thin, little 
if any of it can leak out, and 'when filled up very full, it can safely be left alone 
for a couple of months at a time. Packing the various leather boots—the two for 
the steering system, and those for the universal joints—may be handled m the 
same way. 

In general, the operator should learn the external cups, which should have a 
turn or part of a turn every time he goes out; those which require attention, only 
every other time; the ones which come due weekly, while the bigger but less fre¬ 
quent jobs will take care of themselves. Each time before starting up, it is a 
matter of but a minute’s time to go around those which are due, giving them each 
the required turn. This method of procedure is simple, quick, takes little or no 
time, and does the business. After getting the habit, one does it automatically, 
like setting spark and throttle levers before cranking, or measuring the gasoline 
before starting out. 

Lubrication should be looked upon as a preventative, not as a task or a duty. 
The owner of the car should say to himself: “If I don’t oil this brake, it won’t 
work right; if I don’t grease those springs, they will squeak ; if I don’t oil my 
motor right, it will seize, and I may have to buy new pistons and rings, possibly 
new cylinders.” Viewed in this light, a simple turn of four or five grease cups to 
save a good many dollars is the best kind of insurance of economy, coupled with 
pleasure and comfort in touring. Aside from the cost and delay of replacements, 
the better and more thorough the oiling and greasing is done, the more easily 
and quietly the car will run. 

seen at Fig. 104, will be of considerable interest, and will assist 
THE CHASSIS to make what has been said about the various parts previously 
DIAGRAM, more clear. In addition, it gives the novice all of the foregoing 

information at a glance. 

Nothing has been said, and nothing will be for the quality of lubricants or 
the different brands, for we hold no brief for any manufacturer. In general, that 
oil, grease, or other lubricant should be selected which the makers advise will give 
best results. By this, reference is had to car makers, although the advice of 
lubricant firms may be heeded. It is a matter in which each and every owner must 
use his own judgment, supplemented later by what his experience has taught him. 
In general, use only the best, regardless of price at the outset. Also at that time 
use it freely—that is, do not be sparing of quantity. Later, with increasing ex¬ 
perience, the owner will be able to cut down the quantity for economy’s sake, 
while further cuts by the use of lower-priced forms will'be possible. Every 
owner should keep an accurate account of his lubricants, as to cost, quantity used, 
mileage obtained, bad results, if any, improvements over the previous kind, etc. 
By consulting this record, it will be possible for him to determine at any time 
whether the use of a lower-priced lubricant has been profitable or otherwise. 

is made necessary by the tremendous temperatures involved in the 
COOLING engine cycle. Thus, the explosions which follow one another so 
closely generate a great amount of heat which is not carried off in 
the exhaust. The result is to heat up the cylinder walls, pistons, rings, valves, 
inlet and exhaust pipes, and other parts of the motor, this growing rapidly worse 


274. If a pump shaft shears off? This is 
not as dang-erous as might be supposed, for 
if the system is well arranged with large 
pipes of few bends and a fairly large radi¬ 
ator, the system will continue to work, oper¬ 
ating on the thermo-syphon plan, if there is 
a passage through the pump for the water. 

275. In the thermo-siphon system, how is 
the water circulated? W"hen water is heated, 
it becomes lighter, and rises. If there is a 
source of cool water connected to the bottom 
of the part in which the water is heated, cool 
water will at once flow in to take its place. 
This in turn will be heated, rise, and cold 
w'ater take its place. Thus, a circulation is 
established, the rapidity of motion depending 


entirely upon the amount of the heating. If 
this is great, as when the engine is working 
very hard, the water is heated very rapidly, 
and consequently rises and circulates with 
greater rapidity. 

276. Suppose an obstruction got into one 
of the two pipes from the cylinders to the 
radiator in the thermo system, what would 
happen? The motor would begin to heat life 
at once, and, if not noticed by the driver, 
eventually the pistons would seize. 

277. How is this prevented? The pipes are 
made so large that it would be practically 
impossible for anything to get in of such a 
size as would clog them, unless it were put 
in purposely. 







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228 


Lubrication and Cooling 


STF.CRINO KNUCkLB 

Ligtil CrtO!**—One turn cup deity 


FRONT HUD 

(jtTa!*e—Pill bub oionthty 


PAX 


ijghl Oreaac—One tom cup deily 


CROSS STEERINQ TUBE 

Light Oreaiie—Ooe turs cup deily 


CVJiH CASE 

Cylinder Oil—One gun 
weekly-'See instructioni 


WATER PUMP 

Light Orettitc—One turn cup deily 


OILER 

Cylinder Oil^Never let it get empty 


CRANK CASE 

Cylinder Oil-^Drain 


every 1000 milee and [ 


CLUTCH 


See instnietione' 


CLUTCH TRUNNIOX GREASECUP, 
One t|iro daily 

TRANSMISSION 

See loatructiooe 


UNIVERSAL JOINT 

Qreaee^FiU montbly 


INTERMEDIATE BRAKE SHAFT 
Machine Oil—Few dropa weekly 


TORQUE TUBE 

' Oreaiie~Ciie cum ol|p daily 


^SPRING PAD 

Light Greeae—One torn cup daOy 


SPRING 

Machine OU^Ftw drape woekly 


REAR HUB _ 

Qreaew—FSU bub montbly 


^Bake shaft 

Machioe Oiil^FfW dmpa weekly 



SPRING 

Machine Oil’—Few drops weekly 


STEERING KNUCKLE , ^ , 

Light Grease-;—One turn cup uaily: 


FRONT HUB 

Grease—Fill hub njonthly 

MAGNETO COUPLING 

Machine Oil—Few drops daily 

CROSS STEERING TUBE 

Light Grease—One turn cup daily 


MAGNETO 

Dynamp Oil*—Weekly W'here 
marked oil 


SIDE STEERING TUDR 

Grease—Pack joints yearly 


TIMER SHAFT 

Light Grease—One turn cup ilally 


TIMER 


See instruction » « 


STEERING GEAR 

Light Graphite Grease 
Fill moiilhl.v 


CONTROL SHAFT , 

Machine Oil—Few dropa weeklyy 


DRIVE SHAFT 

Light Grease—One turn cup daily 


INTERMEDIATE BRAKE SHAFT 
Machine Oil—Few drops weekly 


rear axle 


See instruction* 


SPRING 

Machine Oil—'Few drops weekly 


SPRING PAD 

Light Grease—One turn run daily 


rib, REAR HUB 

jm Grease—Fill hub monthly 


BRAKE SHAFT 

Machiue Oil—Few dropa weekly 


Fig. 104.—Diagram of an Entire Chassis, Giving Lubricating Directions for All the 

Important Parts. 


278. What precautions should he observed 
with the cooling system? For one thing, no 
oil should be allowed to get in, for this will 
spread out over the surface of the radiator, 
and practically nullify the surface it covers, 
in so far as radiating surface is concerned. 
A very small amount of oil or grease will 
make a good-sized radiator temporarily use¬ 
less in this manner. 

279. How can the driver get this out? By 

boiling out the system with a hot soda solu¬ 
tion. This is a good plan, anyhow, as it 
takes out all the dirt which has been depos¬ 
ited in the various corners and pockets of 
the system, and leaves the whole interior 
clean and thus capable of being cooled more 
efficiently. 


280. When the radiator heats up to the 
point where steam issues? The driver should 
proceed slowly to a source of water. The 
slower he runs, the less he will heat up his 
engine. Then he should open the radiator by 
taking off the cap, and allow it to steani as 
much as it will, and cool off. When fairly 
cool, water should be added, a little at a 
time, so as not to chill, and thus contract 
and possibly crack the cylinders. 

281. In doing this, what precautions should 
he observed? For his own sake, the driver 
should be extremely careful in taking off the 
radiator filler cap, as he is very likely to 
have the pressure of the steam formed with¬ 
in blow it off unexpectedly and burn his fin¬ 
gers at the same time. 

















































































































































































































230 


Lubrication and Cooling 


as the engine continues to run. As much of this should be conducted away as 
possible, and, next to making the exhaust valves and pipes as large as possible 
and keeping them open and connected with the cylinders for the longest possible 
time, this heat is conducted away by two means. These are direct cooling, by 
means of integrally cast or applied air-conducting flanges, and indirect cooling, 
by means of water or other liquid circulation, this in turn being cooled by means 

of air. - 

The first method is not in very general use now. It is called 
AIR COOLING, air cooling, and cylinders so made are called air cooled. There 
are two methods of accomplishing this. One is the casting of 
the cylinders with projecting fins or flanges, which are supposed to carry the heat 
away from the internal or working parts of the engine, whence the air currents 
carry off this heat by conduction. As might be supposed, these cylinders are 
difficult to produce in the 
foundry, hence the second 
method was evolved. This 
involved putting the radiat¬ 
ing surfaces on the cylin¬ 
ders, in the form of spiral 
flanges of copper, with the 
ends cut to form a series of 
projecting fins, in the form 
of pins screwed into the 
cylinders, the radial form of 
these giving it a porcupine¬ 
like appearance, or in other 
forms. 

In all of these,’entire de- 

pendence is not placed upon Fig. lOS.—The Most Prominent American Air-Cooled Engine, Show- 
natural circulation of the *’'= Flange, 

cooling medium, air, but this is circulated past the flanges in various ways. In 
the Franklin engine, shown in Fig. 105, the flanges are set vertically, are sur¬ 
rounded by a jacket, open only at the top and bottom, while the bonnet enclosing 
the motor is made air-tight everywhere except at the front, where the air enters, 
and at the rear, where a highly efficient fan, placed on the exterior of the flywheel, 
draws the air through. In this manner, the air is forced to pass along the cool¬ 
ing flanges in its passage from- the entrance at the front of the bonnet to the only 
exit at the flywheel. 

In the Kelly engine, formerly called the Frayer-Miller, and up to a few 
months ago used on all Kelly trucks, the process is inverted. Instead of drawing 
the air over the flanges, a blower fan at the front end of the engine forces it over. 
This is geared up from the crankshaft, and forces a great volume of air over 
through the pipes to the cylinders, thence down over the flanges, whence it is 
allowed to escape at the bottoms of the cylinder air jackets. To further the 
method as much as possible, the combustion chamber is formed on the top of the 



240A. If the engine stand a considerable 
time in cold weather, and then turns over 
very hard and is difficult to start? The lu¬ 
bricating oil on the cylinder walls, piston, 
connecting rod and crankshaft bearings, and 
elsewhere has oxidized and thickened to such 
an extent that it increases friction and in¬ 
creases the turning effort required, rather 
than lessening both. 

241A. How can this be remedied? As far 

as the cylinders and pistons are concerned, 
an injection of kerosene will cut the old 
and useless oil. This can be injected 
through the valve caps or through the spark 
plug openings. As it will vaporize and 
burn, the same as gasoline this need not be 
removed, as is the case with anything else 
which might be put in for this purpose. 


242A. As far as the crankcase, the shaft 
and bearings, how can the trouble there be 
remedied? Empty out all the old oil that 
will run out and then squirt in as much 
kerosene as is possible. In the case of a 
few bearings, it will be possible to intro¬ 
duce this directly to them, while those bear¬ 
ings of the connecting rod may be reached 
by turning it over slowly until they come 
to the bottom position, one after the other, 
and can be reached while there. 

243A. After all this has been done, what 
is next? Replace the crankcase and fill.it 
with clean, fresh oil. Then start the motor 
and run it for a few moments; when all 
the kerosene will be burned out. If the 
engine acts at all sluggish, or does not 
warm up well, stop it and while still warm 
















































































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232 


Lubrication and Cooling 


cylinder head with the valves set horizontally in this. The result is that the cold 
blast of air meets these most highly heated parts first. 

Aside from the simple 
method of casting on the 
flanges and providing a 
large fan to produce a 
draft of air past the same, 
as shown in Fig. 107, the 
only other-method used is 
that of inverting the proc¬ 
ess of forcing air against 
the cylinders by forcing 
the cylinders against the 
air, so to speak. By this, 
reference is had to the en¬ 
gine in which the cylin¬ 
ders are rotated, these be¬ 
ing made with radial 
flanges. 

Generally, this is now 
spoken of as a rotating 
engine, and it is exempli¬ 
fied in car construction by the Adams-Farwell motor, which was built in five- and 
seven-cylinder forms, and in aeroplane construction by the Gnome and others. 



Fig. 


106.—The Next Most Prominent American Air Cooler, Indicating 
How the Same Result Is Obtained Through the Medium of 
a Tremendous Forced Blast of Air. 


WATER COOLING. 


In actual practice, it has been found that the results which 
can be obtained with the limited area of the flanges makes 
this air cooling a somewhat unsatisfactory system. IVI^ore- 
air-cooled 


over, with the 
form of motor, it has been 
found that the cylinders 
expand under the great 
amount of heat present, a 
sufficient amount to allow 
of a loss of compression, 
and, thus, a reduction of 
power. A further item is 
that no matter how well 
made and quiet at first, 
the air-cooled motor soon 
gets noisy. For these rea¬ 
sons, it has been found 
advisable to resort to the 
indirect method of cool¬ 
ing the cylinders with water, and then cooling the water by means of air, instead 
of using the air directly. 



-A Simple Air-Cooling Method for Contrast. The Fins Are 
Cast Radially, and a Fan at the Front Draws in Air, 

There Being No Other Provision. 


inject additional kerosene. After this sec¬ 
ond dose, applied while the cylinders are 
still hot, there will be no trouble. 

244A. Under similar circumstances, how 
should the transmission he treated? All the 
old grease and oil should be removed, and 
the case cleaned out thoroughly with kero¬ 
sene. This is especially important for the 
wear of the gears produces a fine metal dust 
which collects in the oil, but is deposited 
when it stands, in the bottom of the chse. 
It is important to get all this out. When 
that has been done, the new lubricant may 
be introduced. If the lighter and heavier 
kinds are mixed, the lighter should be put 
in first, and the car run a short distance 
with it alone; then the heavier portion added. 


The idea is to work the thinner lubricant 
thoroughly into all the bearings, sliding 
parts and all parts which move or work, or 
need it in any way. 

245A. What is the usual method of pro¬ 
ceeding with the steering joints? These are 
covered generally with a leather boot, which 
is packed with grease and then closed for 
the season. At the end of each season’s 
running, they should be emptied, and before 
the beginning of a new one, they should 
have the boot taken off and a light oil 
worked into all the joints and moving parts. 
Then the boot is replaced and refilled with 
the usual grease, packing it as full as will 
close up well, and lacing it up tightly. 































































































































































































































Lubrication and Cooling 




The greater efficiency of this comes in the possibilities for greatly increased 
cooling surface available in a radiator, as compared with the small area available 
on the cylinders themselves. Water, as a heat-conducting medium, has many 
times the ability of air, so that 
a much smaller quantity will 
carry away a much greater 
amount of heat. The tremen¬ 
dously increased radiating 
surface of the ordinary motor 
car cooler or radiator is what 
enables this to be removed 
from the water in turn, so 
that it takes up the cycle again 
fairly cool, although not as 
cold as it was in the begin¬ 
ning. 

There are two methods of 
circulating the water: By 
pump, and through its own 
rise in temperature. The for¬ 
mer is more general, and is 
considered more efficient. In 
this, a pump—of the vane, centrifugal, or plunger type—draws the cool water 
from the bottom to the radiator, pumps it into the lower parts of the water 
jackets on the cylinders, whence it absorbs the excess heat, passes on to the top, 

and out through another pipe 
to the top of the radiator. 
There it is cooled, falls to the 
bottom, and starts around the 
cycle again. In a system of 
this sort, as shown in the dia¬ 
gram, Fig. io8, aside from 
the cylinders themselves, there 
is needed the radiator or cool¬ 
er, the pump, the piping with 
a drain cock at the lowest 
point for drawing off the wa¬ 
ter, and the fan. The first is 
the most important and one of 
the more costly units in the 
motor car. Generally, it is 
constructed from copper and 
brass, both costly materials, and in such a way that all of the joints have to be 
soldered or brazed by hand, which also adds materially to the expense. Such a 
radiator is shown in Fig. 109, this being of the so-called square-tube type. It is 
called this because the air holes through the radiator form a series of squares. 



Fig. 


109.—A Typical Radiator of the Square Tube Honeycomb 
Type, Indicating Enormous Radiating Space. 


246A. Is there anything" about these boots 
which requires special attention? No, ex¬ 
cept that they be whole, and not torn, cut 
or gashed in any way that would allow the 
grease to escape. It is well, also, to clean 
them after emptying in the fall, as they 
collect a lot of dirt during the year’s run¬ 
ning, dirt which water alone will not take 
off. This should be removed in its entirety, 
to prevent the possibility of the same being 
ground into the bearings with the grease. 

247A. When lubricator g'lasses g’ive trou¬ 
ble, how can this be remedied? If this is 
due to the glasses clouding up, this can be 
removed by taking the glasses off and clean¬ 
ing them thoroughly. It is a good idea to 
rub the surface over which the lubricant 


passes with a little glycerine. This will not 
keep them from clouding entirely, but will 
help keep them clear for a considerable 
length of time. 

248A. How is g'rease gotten into a more 
or less inaccessible place which is supposed 
to have a lot of it? In such cases as a dif¬ 
ferential, which takes at least a pound of 
grease at the beginning of each season, and 
which oftentimes has a small hole, not over 
one inch in diameter, the grease should be 
forced in by means of a so-called grease gun 
—that is, a gun for handling heavy liquids 
which is provided with a form of handle 
or crank which allows of applying pressure 
to the contents so as to force them out 
through the long spout. There is a form of 









































































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236 


Lubrication and Cooling 



which give the front of the car ’a very pleasing and uniform appearance. When 
these holes are formed by round pipes, the radiator is called a honeycomb type, a 
name which was applied to it many years ago when it was first brought out, but 
which is now going out. A third and very cheap type, used only on the lowest- 
priced cars, and on very few of these, consists of a series of round, flat metal 
discs, soldered onto the outside of a con¬ 
tinuous copper pipe. These flanges are 
set equal distances apart, while the cop¬ 
per tube is coiled, wound, or folded to 
some convenient shape. 

Next in importance comes the pump. 

As has been stated, this is generally of 
the centrifugal, vane, gear, or plunger 
type, the latter being used very little. 

Fig. no shows one of the centrifugal 
type, this being the most popular form. 

Although this does not show the interior 
but only the exterior and the piping, its 
working is easy to explain. The impel¬ 
ler consists of a series of blades with 
considerable width, these being curved 
to the form which will throw water most 
efificiently, as determined in water tur¬ 
bines. That is, these are small turbines, but inverted so that the turbine drives the 
water instead of the water driving the turbine. The case is formed to admit the 
water to be impelled at the most advantageous point, and is shaped so as to carry 
it oif with as few bends or curves as possible. 

The vane is not different from the 
centrifugal in action, but has a single 
central boss, in which a vane slides 
back and forth as the shape of the 
chamber in which it is rotated allows 
it to expand or contract, a spring be¬ 
tween the two parts of the vane al¬ 
lowing this action, as shown in Fig. 
III. Where the case is narrow and 
_ the vane must contract, the water is 

Fig. Iii.-Section Through a Vane Type of Pump, admitted, and Carried around to the 
Indicating the Sliding Vane in Two Parts and the Wider part, where the vaneS expand 
Spring Which Keeps Them Separated. ^ centrifugal 

action. That is, in the vane pump a single sliding vane takes the place of three, 
four, or more arqis on the centrifugal type, although the actual forcing of the 
water is a centrifugal action in both cases. 

This is made clear in Fig. iii, where the vane type is shown in section with 
the vane at its point of maximum extension. Beyond this point, the sides of the 
case contract it gradually, at the same time forcing out the water. 



grease pot marketed, which holds five 
pounds of grease and has a long fiexible 
metal hose, made especially for filling' dif¬ 
ferential cases of this kind. In general, if 
there is no instrument of this kind at hand, 
force in grease by hand until the patience 
is exhausted, then squirt in a considerable 
supply of a lighter oil, using an ordinary 
oil can. While perhaps a little too light at 
first, this will soon mix with the grease 
and thicken up. 

249A. On a long tour, when the supply 
houses are liable to be somewhat far apart, 
and with a motor which does not hold a 
great deal of oil, what plan is advisable? In 

such a case, it is well to carry along a 


couple of sealed cans of the oil used, in 
addition to a full motor, or motor and tanks, 
in case the car is fitted with tanks. If this 
plan is not favored, there is on the market 
a type of oil container called an emergency 
oil can. These are made in a variety of 
sizes, and one should be obtained sufficiently 
large to carry the motor to the next source 
of supply. On the long stretches of desert 
and plain of the far West and Southwest, 
it is necessary always to carry extra oil, 
gasoline and water, since these are not 
obtainable at times for a distance of 300 
miles or more. 

250A. What is an air lock? This is a 
body of air entrapped between two columns 
of water in a motor-cooling system. 

























S38 


Lubrication and Cooling 


IN THE GEAR PUMP, 


an example of which is shown in Fig. 112, a pair of 
gears of equal size, each with a ver^ small number 
of teeth and of a special shape, mesh and rotate con¬ 
tinuously. Water is admitted on what 
misfht be called the back side of these 
gears, flows into the spaces between the 
teeth, is picked up and forced along, the 
action of the rapidly rotating gear teeth 
partaking to a large extent of a centrifu¬ 
gal action in throwing ofif the water. 
This probably is the simplest form of 
pump in use, but the disadvantage lies 
in the fact that a small piece of wood, 
a sliver of metal, or other foreign mat¬ 
ter in the water will put it ^out of busi¬ 
ness temporarily, and while it is dis¬ 
abled thus, no water can flow through it. 
With the plunger the same is the case, 
but not so with the vane and centrifugal 
types. 

That is, the two latter will allow the 

Fig, n2.-Gear Pump, in Which the Teeth Are Water tO paSS through Oil the themiO- 
But Indicated, Not all of Them Being Shown. sipllOU principle, even thoUgh they do nOt 

the Top. operate. Flungerandgear will not do this. 



are not used on all cars, some designers considering them 
COOLING FANS superfluous with a large radiator and good-sized pipes. Others 

leave them off to save the additional parts and the weight 
they add. In general, their necessity is recognized, and they are used on the 
majority of cars. The forms in Figs. 113, 114 and 115 will give some idea of 
the great difference in their construction. That in Fig. 112 belongs to a well- 
known American four-cylinder car of low price. The fan is of pressed steel 
with six arms, riveted to a cast central spider, and is belt driven from the crank¬ 
shaft to give a high speed of rotation. The one seen in Fig. 113 is from one of 
the newer low-priced French cars for the 1914 season, and is of cast aluminum 
with the fan pulley cast integral. It has four arms, comparatively short, is en¬ 
closed in a housing to make the air suction more efficient, and is driven fairly 
fast, but not as fast as the previous one, despite its smaller diameter. This view 
also shows the pump and an exceedingly simple piping scheme. In Fig. 114 is 
shown another European fan layout, this partaking more of the aeroplane pro¬ 
peller type. The fan has but two blades, a casting but bolted to the fan pulley; 
they are of large diameter, and are driven at a high speed of rotation. In addi¬ 
tion, the back of the radiator is housed in to make cooling more efficient. 

This housing in of the back of the radiator is showing such a greatly in¬ 
creased cooling efficiency for the whole system that it promises to be very general 
in 1915. It forces the air to pass through all portions of the radiator. 


251A. What does this do? It prevents 
the passagre of either column of water, and 
consequently, stops all circulation of water 
and all cooling of the engine. In this way, 
the latter heats up very rapidly, and if not 
noted and remedied, the pistons are liable 
to sieze. 

252A. How can this he remedied? Usu- 
ually such a lock will occur at the lowest 
point of the water system, particularly if 
there is a sharp or deep bend in the pipe 
there. The remedy is to place a pet cock 
at that point, and whenever the water stops 
circulating and an air lock is suspected, open 
this cock. If the suspicions are correct, the 
air will then flow out, followed by the wa¬ 
ter. As soon as the latter starts to flow 


the cock can be closed. When the engine 
is started up again, the air lock will be 
found to have disappeared. 

253A. Is there any other point except the 
cylinders, where an air lock is liable to do 
particular damage? The pump is very lia¬ 
ble to be the first part to heat up, due to the 
fact that it is rotating at the usual high 
speed, but is not circulating any water. 
When this heats the shaft is very liable to 
sieze, and if not stopped or cooled off, to 
shear off. This complicates the trouble, for 
the pump is useless until a new one with 
a new shaft can be obtained and fitted into 
place. Of course, the motorist can take a 
chance by operating the car without a pump, 
on the assumption that the water will con- 









































240 


Lubrication and Cooling 




in a position where a 
USING great deal of water is 

LEATHER spilled in filling the ra- 
BELTS diator, fan belts nat¬ 

urally stretch a great 
deal. For this reason, there must 
be provided some means of increas¬ 
ing the tension by moving the fan 
up higher. There are several meth¬ 
ods of doing this, that in Fig. 114 
being by means of a supporting 
lever, the fan being set on one end 
of this while the other end is moved 


to change the tension. 


Lowering 


the long end raises the end on 
which the fan is, and consequently 
tightens the belt. A spring is used 
normally to hold the tension, but 
when the belt loosens up beyond the 
ability of the spring a nut is tight¬ 
ened which causes the spring to ex¬ 
ert still more pressure. In Fig. 115, 
the method of tightening is the use 
of an eccentric bolt. When this is 
turned, the fan is raised or lowered, 
and the belt tightened or loosened, 
according to the direction of turn- 


Fiof. 1 


Fig. 114.—A Foreign Fan Layout, in Which the 
Radiator Makes the Fan More Efficient. 


13.—-A Typical American Fan Layout, with 
Six Blades and Flat Belt. 

ing. Normally, this is held 
tightly, but when the belt 
needs attention, it is loos¬ 
ened up, the member turned 
until the tension is right, 
and then tightened again. 
As compared with the for¬ 
mer, it has the advantage 
of greater simplicity, fewer 
parts, and occupies less 
space. 

\Mien water is heated, it 
becomes lighter, and tends 
to rise to the top of the ves¬ 
sel in which it is confined. 
This well-known action is 
made use of in many house 
, , heating systems, a single 

Shrouded • ® . 11 , , 

pipe carrying the hot water 


tinue to flow by thermo-siphon action, but 
this is not advisable, for generally pump 
systems are made with very much smaller 
pipes, sharper bends and more of them, than 
thermo-siphon systems. 

254A. When a pump is lubricated by 
means of a grease cup placed close down to 
it, so close in fact that water forces up 
through the grease and escapes all the time, 
how can this be remedied? Take the grease 
cup off, and fit a filler pipe a couple of 
inches long between it and the hole in the- 
pump casing. Then, when the cup and pipe 
are filled with grease, the water will not be 
able to travel the additional distance up the 
pipe. Consequently the leak will be stopped. 


255A. After several bad bumps on the 
road, the radiator seems to begin leaking 
after the whole system gets heated up so 
that it is thoroughly hot. Then it will con¬ 
tinue as long as the engine runs? The trou¬ 
ble is that a small leak has been sprung in 
the radiator by the jolts of the road, either 
in a tube, or the solder surrounding the 
tubes. This hole is so small that when the 
water is cold it will not pass through. As 
the radiator heats, it expands and this hole 
is opened up. In addition, hot water is 
thinner and will pass through smaller holes 
than cold, so the two combine to cause a 
considerable leak at a point where there is 











242 


Lubrication and Cooling 



from the furnace, and the cold fluid going back to it. This same action is taken 
advantage of in the thermo-siphon system of cooling motor car engines. Larger 
pipes, larger water spaces throughout, short, simple piping without bends, and a 
greater quantity of water are the only changes from the pump circulating system. 
The action in this case, shown graphically in Fig. ii6, is as follows: The cylin¬ 
ders heat the water, which rises to the upper pipe, while other water from below 
flows in to take its place, and, in turn, is heated and rises. The result is a steady 
upward flow of water, which passes over into the radiator, is cooled, falls to the 
water, and then is used again. The Targe size of the pipes, the few bends and 
those easy ones, and the larger water spaces provide for the expansion of the 
water and its consequent upward action with as little friction as possible. The 
radiator is set as high as possible, so that the actual rise of the heated water is 
small; in addition, this provides a slight head or pressure of water by which the 
colder fluid is forced up to the water jackets from below. 

The advantage claimed for this system is the entire 
THE THERMO" elimination of the pump, which saves also its mounting, 

SYPHON SYSTEM, driving means, lubrication, piping, etc., all of which add 

to the number of parts and particularly to the first cost, 
maintenance cost and weight. It is claimed also that the pump method of circu¬ 
lation may be too rapid, cooling the 
water too much, and making the tem¬ 
perature of the engine so low that its 
efficiency is reduced, while by the nat¬ 
ural method it is kept as warm as pos¬ 
sible at all times, the water circulat¬ 
ing according to its heating. A dis¬ 
advantage lies in the fact that the wa¬ 
ter is kept close to the boiling point all 
the time, and a very slight obstruction 
is sufficient to cause steaming. Since 
the amount of water present is small 
enough at best, as soon as it starts to 
boil away in the form of escaping 
steam the quantity is being diminished. 
This, if neglected, will soon lead to 
overheating, when the lubrication may 
not be sufficient to keep cylinder and 
piston apart, with the result that the 
latter seizes, as it is called, uniting 
firmly with the cylinder walls. When 
this happens, the operator should pour 
into the tops of all cylinders as quickly 
as possible a quantity of kerosene or 
the thinnest oil he can obtain, in the 
,,, , , A/r V, this will flow down between 

115. —Another Foreign Design, with Much .1 n 1 • 1 r • < 

Simpler Lines and a Two-Bladed Fan. the WallS and piStOllS, thuS freeing the 


Fig. 


none when the engine is started and both 
radiator and water are cold. 

256A. How can this he remedied? There 
are substances Avhich can be put in the wa¬ 
ter, and which will find their way to this 
point and seal it. A number of these, in 
the form of powders and liquids are now 
on the market. The hist way, however, is 
to take the radiator off and have the place 
soldered. It is advisable first to determine 
it somewhat carefully when the radiator has 
heated up and the leak is apparent, mark¬ 
ing this point so as to save the repairman 
much trouble finding it. 

257A. Suppose a piece of hose in the wa¬ 
ter system shows a leak and no materials 
are available to repair it, nor a new piece 


of hose to replace it? Wind a couple of 
folds of cloth over the leaking part, draw¬ 
ing this as tightly as possible, and winding 
it on so the thick part where the folds lap 
one another comes directly over the hole 
in the hose. Then wind tire tape over this, 
making the tire tape fast to the hose before 
starting onto the cloth, and after covering 
the cloth, making it tight on the other side. 
If this is done with care, a repair will result 
which can be driven many miles without 
leakage. 

258A. Is there another way in which this 
repair can be elfected? Almost as good a 
way is to soak string or twine in grease 
or heavy oil and wind this around th§ pipe, 
allowing about three thicknesses over the 













244 


Lubrication and Cooling 


latter. Then a supply of water should be obtained, and poured in very gradu¬ 
ally with many waits. If poured in too quickly, the cylinder walls, which are 
chilled by it, may contract quickly enough to seize the pistons again, this time in 
a grip which cannot be loosened so easily. 


For normal running, outside of hard running in 
PROPER TEMPERATURE. sand, mud, or the hard pulling of mountain work, 

the radiator should be just hot enough so a person 
can lay the hand on it, but cannot keep it there. If it is so cool that the hand 
can be kept there without discomfort, then the motor is being kept too cold. If it 
is much hotter than the hand can bear 
—that is, so hot it is impossible to 
touch it without being burned, the sys¬ 
tem is getting too hot, and additional 
cold water should be put in, a little at 
a time, as before. On mountain work, 
it is advisable to carry extra water, so 
as to be able to do this. There are 
times in heavy pulling when the sys¬ 
tem gets so hot that all water should 
be drawn off and replaced with cold. 

When this is done, the hot water 
should be drawn off first and the car 
with the cooling system empty allowed 
to stand for a few minutes before any 
cold water is put in. Tf this is not 
done, the water and the engine parts 
will heat up this cold water as fast as it is put in, and nothing will be gained. 

So important has the cooling system come to be considered in the modem 
motor car that devices have been brought out which show the driver automatically 
when his system needs more water, indicating the temperature of the same to him 
at all times. For the beginning motorist these are excellent, and their use is 
advised strongly. 


Water Outlet 



Water Inle1 


Fig. 116.—The Outlines of a Thermo-Siphon Cool¬ 
ing System, Showing How the Pipes Are Enlarged, 
Shortened and Straightened to Make the Water Pas¬ 
sages as Simple and Direct as Possible. 


break and gradually tapering out at the 
ends. This should be wound on carefully 
and as close together as possible, the ability 
of the repair to resist water from within 
depending upon the oil, or grease-soaked 
twine being close enough together so that 
water can not pass between. 

259A. Suggest still another makeshift re¬ 
pair. An old inner tube can be cut up, so 


as to make a long, narrow strip or strips. 
One of these is wound on the cracked hose, 
much as a bandage is wound around an 
injury. Care shauld be exercised to wind 
this on as tightly as possible, stretching the 
rubber all the time. When several folds 
have been wound on, the outside edges of 
the rubber are fastened down by means of 
string, twine, wire or otherwise. 



























































CHAPTER VII. 


What Every Owner Should Know About 
Rims, Wheels, and Solid Tires. 


WERE presented in considerable detail in Chapter II, but nothing was 
TIRES said there about their methods of fastening. There are a number of 
these, and as they are decidedly different and as their use necessitates 
different methods of handling, this will be taken up. In general, the first tires 
were of the clincher type—that is, made with a clincher attachment. In this, the 
bead of the tire is formed with a pair of lips, one of the outside of each bead to 
fit into a pair of corresponding recesses on the inside and outside of the rim. The 
latter was in one piece, consequently the tire had to be stretched in order to get 
it on. To make this possible, the beads were made somewhat flexible; but even 
with this advantage, it was a very tiresome, slow and disagreeable task to put 

one on or take it off. 
In fact, it was a ques¬ 
tion which was the 
greater job, to take it 
off or put it on. 

The sketch. Fig. 

117 , shows the clinch¬ 
er rim and the base of 
the clincher tire. In 
this, A is the nominal ~ 
diameter of the rim, 
by which it is gener- 

Fig. 117.—Section Through a Clincher Rim and Tire, Showing the Amount Spokcil of , simi- 

E Which the Tire Must Be Stretched All Around Its Circumference larly B bcino" the nom- 
in Order to Get It on the Wheel. • i • j., ^ 

inal Width. The in¬ 
side diameter of the rim C, and the extreme outside diameter D have no bearing 
on its general nomenclature, but the latter is highly important in putting on or 
taking off the tire. It will be noted that the extreme outside diameter D exceeds 
the inside diameter A by the amount E for its entire circumference—that is, it is 
that much bigger all around. Now the tire has as its smallest diameter the size A, 
corresponding to the inside diameter of the rim. In order to get the tire in place, 
however, each side of it must be stretched a distance slightly greater than E. 
That is, the small size A must be stretched to a size slightly larger than D in 
order that it may pass over the edges or lips of the rim. Once in place, the same 
stretching process must be repeated in order to get it off, with this difference, that 



How to Remedy the Most Common Automobile Troubles 


282. When a tire punctures, what is the 
reason? The air escapes from its container 
because a hole or opening of some kind has 
been made in it. This may come from inside 
or outside; inside via too much pressure, a 
combination of weakness and high pressure, 
unusual heating causing undue expansion, un¬ 
usual weakness or rotting due to dampness 
or other causes, etc. From the outside, it 
may be caused by any sharp object which 
has been forced through both casing and tube, 
as nails, screws, other metal objects, sharp- 
pointed stones, and any sharp or pointed an¬ 
imal or vegetable matter. Motorists have 
sustained a puncture from corn stalks when 
running across fields. 

283. How should this be fixed? If the hole 
through the casing is small, the natural 


spring of the material in it and its many 
thicknesses will take care of that Then 
there remains only the repair of the air bag 
or tube. This is cleaned, patched with a 
rubber patch, cemented in place with rubber 
cement, then allowed to dry and the job 
tested. The latter is advisable before insert¬ 
ing in the shoe, as otherwise the motorist 
will have to do the work of removal and in¬ 
serting, no mean job with clincher and auick- 
detachable forms, twice over. 


vYiieii T,ne noie in the tube is a fairly 
^ng one, as, for instance, I 14 inches long? 

Trim off the edges so they will be smooth all 
around. Mash out the inside of the rubber 
with benzine then coat this with cement Al¬ 
low It to dry until sticky, this varying' with 
the nature of the cement. Some kinds re- 


246 
















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248 


HimSy Wheels and Solid Tires 


there is less room to work and place the tools. The bead farthest away from the 
worker is put on first, commencing at any point by simply pushing the bead into 
the space in the rim. Then, holding this in place, the balance of the tire is pushed 
up as close as possible to the side of the wheel. Next, with a thin-bladed tool, 
the operator starts to work around from the part which is in position, sliding this 
under the bead of the tire and over 
the inside edge of the rim, and 
then lifting up on it, so as to 
stretch the tire. When stretched, 
a continuation of the same motion 
or any sideways movement with 
the same tool or a hammer, forces 
it along the tool, until it drops off, 
on the inside. This is easy enough 
until the width of tire still outside 
is reduced to about lo inches in 
length. Usually, it is necessary to 
lift all of this over at one time, 
which means the exertion of con¬ 
siderable force in stretching such 
a length of tire. When it has 
slipped over, so that the entire in¬ 
side bead of the shoe is inside the 
rim, this is forced over with the 
butt end of the tool, until it rests 
snugly against the rim on the op¬ 
posite side. • 

In this position, the tire looks as 
shown at 5 of Fig. 118 , N showing 
the position when forcing on the 
last of the bead. When this has 
been crowded over against the rim 
for its entire circumference, the 
inner tube is put in place, and the 
work of putting on the other bead 
begins. This is done in the same 
manner, C of Fig. ii8 showing the 
situation at the start. The loose 
portion is put in place, and, work¬ 
ing both ways from this, as much 
more is forced in place as can be done with the hands. When it is nearly all in, 
except possibly the last lo or I 2 inches, the tool and hammer come into play, 
alternately stretching and pounding it in, until the job is finished. In this work 
of putting on the outer bead, great care must be exercised not to catch the inner 
tube between the pointed inner ends of the two beads, or between the rim and any 
part of the second or outer bead. A good way in which to prevent this, in large 



Fig. 118.—Putting on the ^Clincher Tire. First, the 
Front Edge with Its Fairly Stiff Bead Is Forced on Over 
the Rim, as at A, Using a Stiff and Strong Tool; This 
Gives the Situation Shown at B. Next, the Inner Tube Is 
Inserted, as Shown at C, and Then the Outer Edge Is 
Forced on in the Same Manner as the Inner. 


quire 15 to 20 minutes; others as much as 
two hours. When ready, insert a patch which 
has been recently dipped in benzine. Make 
this from 1 to 2 inches longer than the hole 
and wider in a similar proportion. Cut it 
square, but trim off the corners to a round. 
Lay this inside flat and press the tube down 
on it, then fill the cavity in the tube with a 
good quality of rubber gum, prepared for this 
purpose, then cure for 15 to 20 minutes at 30 
pounds’ steam pressure, or its equivalent, in 
any other form of vulcanizer. 

285. What is a vulcanizer? Simply a heat¬ 
ing device which will melt the new rubber 
into the old, so to speak. Rubber wdll unite if 
a small amount of sulphur be present and it 
is heated for a considerable length of jime 
under some pressure. 


286. Is its use advisable? Yes, at all times. 
Every motorist should possess one, know 
how and when to use it, and carry it with 
him at all times. Self-curing patches anM 
cements may be correct in theory, but a mo¬ 
torist can never be sure of himself when he 
has one or more of them. W^ith a vulcanized 
job he is safe, and knows it. 

287. In vulcanizing, is it possible to dam¬ 
age the tire? Yes, indeed: the rubber may 
be heated too hot or kept at a high tempera¬ 
ture for too long a time. The former is 
done usually when the repairman is limited 
for time; sooner than do a good job and 
make you wait for it, he will use a higher 
pressure and temperature than he ought and 
force out the job more quickly. 

















Rims, Wheels and Solid Tires 


m) 


part, at least, is to inflate it slightly as soon as it is in place all around. This air 
pressure inside throws the greater portion of its bulk up against the top of the 
shoe and out of the way of the bead where the work is being done. Care must 
be taken not to overinflate, however, as this holds the casing in a stiflf, inflexible 
position, and makes forcing it on more difficult. ^ 

In defense of the clincher rim and tire, which are going out of use very 
rapidly, being used only on the very cheapest cars, and on very few of those, it 
should be said that it was a simple form, had a minimum number of parts, the 
lightest possible weight, and cost the least money. As soon as the rim is split so 
as to allow of putting this kind of tire in place without stretching the bead, at 
least two pieces are added to each one of the four wheels, adding weight and cost. 

and rims follow the old-time clincher in simplicity, 
Q D CLINCHER TIRES low first cost, and small number of parts. These are, 

as the name indicates, clincher tires which are quick 
detachable. This is effected by the introduction of a locking ring to hold in place 
the outer and removable half of the former clincher rim. The latter is split into a 
fixed member which carries the inner lip, a flat central portion across which the 
tire can be moved, and a depression or channel around the outside which forms a 
resting place for the locking ring. The outer lip is formed by a one-piece, circular 
ring, which has an inside shape similar to the inner lip and a straight outer side. 
The locking ring is made to force in between the channel and the lower corner of 
the outer lip member, and carries at one end a round lug, projecting downward 
at right angles to the inside of the ring. In the channel, there is a hole into 
which this lug fits tightly, this forming the starting place for putting on and the 
finishing point for taking off the locking ring. The balance of the ring is simply 
sprung into place, its natural spring holding it firmly, while the manner in which 
it is put in place, along a diagonal line, combined with the fact that it must be 
removed in the same manner, while all stresses exerted on it in running are either 
straight outward or straight upward, making it preeminently safe. When the tire 
is inflated, the outside lip portion is forced outward against the locking ring, so 
that it is impossible to remove the latter. 


In order to take off a tire, the air is let out, and as soon 
REMOVING TIRES. as the tire in deflated sufficiently, with^a hammer the out¬ 
side lip portion is loosened and forced in against the tire. 
This makes it possible to pry out with a screwdriver, tire tool, or other sharp- 
pointed instrument the free end of the locking ring. When the outer lip portion 
of the rim is forced in sufficiently to allow of this being pried straight up so the 
operator can get his tool under it and over the edge of both channel and outer lip 
portion, he proceeds to go around the wheel, prying up the ring as he goes. 
Usually it is necessary to force the lip portion in with another tool or hammer as 
he goes along, in order to free the inner edge of the locking ring as the work 
progresses. When the operator gets around to the end of the ring, he lifts the 
lug out of the hole in the channel, and the ring comes free of the wheel. Then 
the outer lip portion can be lifted off readily and without the use of force. Next 


288. In what way is this manifest? The 

rubber becomes brittle and, when badly worn 
or on the sides of the tread wherever there is 
a crack, pieces of it may be broken off in 
distinction lo a good tire from which it is 
necessary to pull the piece by main force, or 
perhaps cut it off. 

289. After a tire repair on the inside of 
the shoe, the piece set in did not stick? Prob¬ 
ably the fabric was wet when the repair was 
made. Inside shoe repairs should never be 
made until the fabric is thoroughly dried 
out. 

290. After a repairman had set a piece 
into a very large-sized tire casing, trouble 
and heating was experienced on the inside? 
probably the repairman did not vulcanize this 


on the inside, so that the job was only half 
done. On all repairs to large cases, it is im¬ 
possible to vulcanize through, and failure will 
surely follow unless the job is vulcanized 
both inside and outside. 

291. A tire case was retreaded and then 
carried as a spare. When put into use, it 
lasted hut a short distance, not over 50 miles? 
A retread job should be put into use imme¬ 
diately. There is something about retreading 
which makes the tire deteriorate much faster 
than a new one, and, if held for an emer¬ 
gency, it may be found wanting. 

292. What mileage should retreading give? 

This depends entirely upon the condition of 
the casing, the quality of the rubber used for 
the new tread, the care with which it is ap- 







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Rims, Wheels and Solid Tires 


OPCQ 


the outer bead part of the tire casing is pried out all the way around to some 
such position as shown at B, Fig. 119, A showing the removal of the ring. 

Now, it is possible to reach in and loosen up the valve, lifting it up inside 
the shoe, until it comes entirely out of the hole through the rim and may be 
pulled out of the tire. With the valve portion out, it is a simple matter to go 
around the wheel, lifting out the tube. This done, the trouble may be fixed, 
unless it happens to be concerned with the shoe. In that case, the latter is pulled 
directly outward across the flat portion of the rim, and lifted ofif bodily. Re¬ 
placing the tire after fixing the trouble, or when new, is just the opposite of this ; 
first, the inner bead is put in place, then the inner tube, followed by slight inflation 
to take it up out of the way, then the outer bead and the outer ring following it 
is forced into place, forcing it in particularly far at the hole in the channel so as 
to put the lug .of the locking ring into place; then it is forced in all around, the 
ring at the same time being sprung, forced or driven down into the channel and 
against the sharp lower edge of the outer ring, until the circuit of the wheel is 



Fig. 119. —Taking off a Quick-Detachable Clincher Is Much Easier. First, the Locking Ring Is Pried Out 
as at A, after Which This Is Loosened all Around and Removed Bodily. This Allows of 
Taking off the Outer Ring of the Rim Proper. Then the Tire Outer Edge May Be Pulled 
Straight Out, as Shown at B. This Leaves Room to Insert the Hand and Take the Tire 
Valve Out of Its Hole, When the Inner Tube Can Be Taken Out. 


completed and the end of the locking ring snaps into place. Then it is well to go 
around the locking ring and outer ring lightly with a hammer, to make sure that 
both are in exact positions. This done, the tire is inflated, .stopping when about 
half through to go around the two rings with the hammer again in order to insure 
both of them being absolutely right. 

Although the tires for a plain clincher and a Q D clincher look alike, they 
are not; the bead on the one, as has been pointed out, is flexible and can be 
stretched; on the other, it is made as strong and stiff as possible, and cannot be 
stretched. However, the plain clincher type of tire may be used with safety on 
a Q D rim, although the reverse is not true—it would not be possible to put 
the tire on. 

A form of tire, formerly popular, and now coming back into favor, is the 
straight side, or Dunlop. This is used with the same type of rim as the Q D 


plied, and the use to which the tire is put 
after retreading. In general, it does not pay 
to retread unless the owner can see or be 
convinced that the job will give him about a 
mile for every cent expended; that is, 1,000 
miles for a $10 tread, 1,200 for a $12, 1,500 
for a $15 job, etc. 

293. A tire was put into use with a new 
tube in a new casing, put on hy the dealer. It 
began to leak at 250 miles, and at 300 waS 
leaking very badly? Probably the interior of 
the shoe was moist, and the dealer, in put¬ 
ting on the new tire, put in too much chalk 
or soapstone. The moisture and pressure 
combined to form this excess into a number 
of small balls, but very hard. These were 
pressed into the soft rubber tube by the air 


pressure, until they wore practically through 
it. As soon as they did, the tube began to 
leak. The amateur should be very careful in 
filling up a casing with chalk or talc; an ex¬ 
cess serves no good purpose. 

294. In taking off a tire, it sticks to the 
rim? Either it has rusted on, or else it is 
an unusually tight fit at a point where the 
metal has rusted or has a rough surface. Use 
a hammer freely to start it, but hammer only 
at the point where the tire sticks, and do not 
use the hammer more than is necessary, nor 
after it has started to come off. 

295. In taking off a tire, the locking ring 
of the quick-detachable sticks in the groove? 
Make sure the'free end has been pried loose, 
then drive the flange against the tire, using 
























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254 


H imSy Wheels and Solid Tires 


clincher, with this exception The lip on the inside of the rim has a filler piece of 
more or less hard rubber placed in it, this having a straight inner edge for the 
base of the tire to rest against. In addition, the outer ring is turned over so that 
it presents the straight edge formerly on the outside to the fire. In this case, the 
long, sharp edge which formerly projected under the base of the outer bead is 
turned outward and the locking ring rests against it, holding the member up 
against the tire as before. The method of putting on or taking ofif a tire is the 
same as before. Since this form of tire has nothing to hold it in side direction, 
other than the pressure within forcing it against the filler strip and the inverted 
outer ring, it is customary to make this kind of tire with a number of fine metal 
wires incorporated in the two lower 
parts of the base which correspond 
with the beads of the other forms. 

This makes that part of the tire more 
stiff and opposes any tendency to 
stretch. In Fig. 120, A indicates the 
Q D rim with a clincher tire in place; 

B, the same rim with a straight side 
and the outer ring inverted, while C 
shows another straight-sided or. Dun¬ 
lop form, with a special rim made for 
this purpose. The rim shown in A 
and B is known as the Standard Uni¬ 
versal No. 2. 

This shown in C is also universal, 
in that the two loose rings, inside and 
outside, may be turned over, when the 
rim will hold a regular clincher or Q D 
clincher tire. The form seen at D is 
one which has been developed by a 
tire company, and requires a special 

wheel. The bead portion of the casing ,20._Four Typical Tire and Rim Forms. At 

is made with a perfectly flat base. This a, the Q-D Clincher, illustrated Previously in Fig. 

is divided in a vertical line, the two of Dunlop Tire; at C, the Goodyear Special Dunlop 
halves meeting squarely, face to face, oT^Quickfy ^ Remo^a’bie^ xSe Boited-Oa 

The outer portion of this lower part of 

the tire has a sloping surface, upon which a pair of rings are forced, one on the 
inside and one on the outside. Through the rim, just below the iron band upon 
which the base of the tire rests, there are a series of 12 holes, equally spaced 
around the circumference. A series of bolts pass through these, having a head 
on the one side which projects up far enough to rest on a groove on the one ring, 
while a kind of washer, also of such a size and shape as to reach to the groove on 
the other ring, is used on the other side, with a nut to tighten the same. By 
means of a special clamp, which the makers furnish, the two sides of the tire are 
drawn tightly together, when the nuts are screwed up as much as possible. Since 
the nuts and bolts hold the rings firmly in position, and since the tire cannot move 



a heavy hammer. It may be possible to pry 
this back and hold it, depending- upon the 
tools available, -while a small chisel is placed 
under the free end of the ring to start it out. 
As soon as this has been forced out so that 
it stands above the flange, something should 
be placed underneath it so that it cannot slip 
back. After this, it is a simple matter of 
continuing around the circumference, alter¬ 
nately prying the flange and tire inward, and 
then the locking ring upward. If this proves 
very stiff and springy, keep something be¬ 
neath it all around, moving this along as the 
work progresses, so there will be no possible 
chance for this to snap back into place, and 
make it necessary to do all the work over 
again. 


296. In taking off a demountable rim, the 
threads on one or two bolts are found to be 
defective? The ring has got to come off, so 
it will be necessary to make new threads or 
Improve the battered ones enough to allow 
forcing the nuts off. With a cold chisel held 
squarely at right angles to the threads, drive 
between each pair of the damaged ones, going 
around the bolt gradually in the spiral and 
of the direction which the space at the bot¬ 
tom of the threads formerly formed. After 
this has been done once or twice, by riieans 
of a little lubricant the nut can be started 
Screw this off as far as possible, but if it 
cannot be taken off entirely, screw oack again 
far enough to allow of working on the 
threads. Repeat the work, and then force the 
nut off. 






















K I* 



256 


Rims, Wheels and Solid Tires 


until the rings are lifted off of their lateral projections at the base, this forms a 
very firm method of holding the tire on. By removing the 12 nuts, the ring on 
the outside can be lifted off, vv^hen the outer side of the tire can be pulled out and 
the tube removed._ 






Wedge Ring 


Felloe- 


FIRESTONE 
RIB Cirr;lg{ Tin 


Felloe Band 




■Clamp 


Collar- 


Felloe- 


are so made that the tire may be removed from the 
DEMOUNTABLE RIMS wheel, complete with tire and all. This allows of 

carrying an extra tire in place on an extra rim, inflated 
and ready for use. In case of puncture, blowout or other trouble, the wheel is 
jacked up, the offending tire removed with its rim and the extra tire and rim put 

nSCartyfagRlm dlamn Tire CarrirTng Rim iu tlieir plaCe. 

This arrange¬ 
ment minimizes 
the delay, and 
does away with 
the labor of 
pumping up 
tires on the 
road. There are 
almost as many 
styles of de¬ 
mountable rims 
as there are 
tires, practically 
every large tire 
company having 
a form which it 
advocates, while 
there is a consid¬ 
erable number 
of them which 
have been placed 
on the market 
directly by their 
inventors. 

In general, the 
construction in- 

121. —Some American Demountable Rim Forms Now in Everyday Use. At A, ^ falsC 

the Michelin; at B, Empire; at C, Fisk; at D, Firestone; at E, Standard, rim Upon whicll 
and at F, Healy. Carrying 

the tire is forced and held by means of wedges, clamps, or other fastening means. 
Fig. 121 shows five of the common forms. The one seen at A is the Michelin, in 
which a series of clamps around the circumference of the wheel carries wedges 
which not only push the tire-carrying rim in tightly against the stop on the other 
side, but also push it outward in a radial direction so that it is held more firmly. 
The bolts are set into the wheel permanently, and only the nuts are removed. As 


on. Clamp 


Felloe Band 


Nut 


MICHELIN 


EMPIRE 


. - Bolt 


Collar 


Tire Carrying Rim 


Tire Carrying Rim 


Head 


Felloe Band 


Felloe Band 


FISK 


flltllllJlj 
Lof lid 

m 


projection on Collar 


KULY OEMOUITIIIE 


STANDARD DEMOUNTABLE 


I Spoki 


297. Will this spoil the rim for future use? 

Probably not; the action of the nut, working’ 
over the threads, will cut them nearly right 
where the chisel failed to give the right 
shape. Doubtless the nut will go right back 
on, and the rim will be as good as new. 

298. Can a clincher tire he used with a 
Q D rim? Yes; but the greatest of care 
should be used in putting on the flanges and 
locking ring, in order to make sure that 
everything is tight. It must be remembered 
that the clincher form has a semi-flexible 
bead. For this reason, it should be held in 
place more tightly and more accurately than 
a Q D. 

299. Can a Q D tire he used on a clincher 
rim? No; it will be impossible to stretch the 
stiff and strong beads of the Q D form over 
the clincher rim. 


300. Do non-skid treads on tire eliminate 
skidding? Not entirely; but they help a great 
deal. If the conditions are right for skid¬ 
ding, nothing will act as an absolute pre¬ 
ventative. Tire chains are very good, non- 
skid treads are good, studded tires are good 
but none of them can be classed as perfect. 

301. What is the difBculty in wood wheel 
manufacture? The material suitable for this 
purpose IS giving out very rapidlv. Second- 
powth hickory is supposed to be the best, 
but more than half the wheels to-day are of 
ash, or a combination of ash and hickory 
Makers are turning to the wire form for this 
reason. 

4 -^ 2 ?’ advantages are supposed 

to go with the wire wheel as compared with 
those of wood? It is lighter by more than 25 
per cent., so that flve wire wheels with their 





























































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25S 


Rims, Wheels arid Solid Tires 


soon as these have been taken off or loosened sufficiently, the clamp w^ith the 
weclg can be pulled out and by turning it around, the wedge portion hangs down¬ 
ward out of the way. When this has been done to all of them, the tire carrying 
rim will be free in a lateral direction and also loose in a radial direction. 

The form seen at B is the Empire, in which the false rim on the wheel is 
built up with a filler plate so that the rim is a tight fit upon it. The bolts are set 
into the wheel permanently, as before, while the clamp is used as a clamp only, 
and not as a wedge. In a Fisk form, seen at C, the false rim is made with a 
peculiar shape, one edge being cut away so as to form a long diagonal. Into this 
the clamp, which has a triangular shape, is forced, thus forming a wedge which 
tightens the grip on the tire-carrying rim as the nuts are tightened. In addition, 
the base of the tire rim is made with a rectangular projection, while a groove is 
milled in both the false rim or felloe band and the wedges. By screwing up on 
the nuts until all three of these parts are wedged tightly together, the tire rim is 
held tightly in a lateral direction. The Firestone form is shown at D. This has 
a false rim or felloe band on the wheel which is made with a tapered surface at 
either side. Resting on this is a filler piece which has a tapered surface to match 
on both edges of the bottom side. One of these fits against the taper on the 
inside of the felloe band, while the other is opposite to the one on the outside. In 
the latter opening a loose, wedge-shaped ring is placed and forced home by means 
of the flat clamps. These are made with an eccentric slot so that as soon as the 
nut is loosened sufficiently, the clamp can drop down out of the way of the wedge 
ring. Thus it is possible to take the rim and tire off without taking off any of 
the nuts or clamps, by simply loosening all of them. 

The form shown at E is the Standard demountable. This has the tire¬ 
carrying rim made with a pair of projections on the underside, both of which are 
faced off to form wedges. The false rim on the wheel has a pair of tapered sur¬ 
faces to match these, and the arrangement of the collar or clamp is such that the 
nut pushes the tire rim inward as far as it is supposed to go. A metal collar set 
into the wood of the felloe around each of the bolts prevents this from being car¬ 
ried too far. In the form of rim seen at F —the Healy—the end of each spoke is 
fitted with a special round metal casting which has a round slot milled in one side 
at the top. It is threaded for a bolt also. The inner edge of each of these is 
turned up to form a stop for the inside of the tire rim. The latter is put in 
place, then the bolts with their retaining lugs are each put in place and screwed 
home. This locks the tire rim tightly in place. This form is a very simple one, 
having fewer parts than any other on the market, but is'open to this objection: 
That as the felloe of the wheel is removed entirely, the wheel is weakened mate¬ 
rially ; .in fact, the car is running at all times on the tire-carrying rim. It is 
widelv used by the taxicab companies. 

' are of wide interest to the business man, for all of his motor 

SOLID TIRES trucks, unless they be very light in weight, are equipped with 
them. Fike pneumatics, these come in a great variety of forms. 
As they have attained their present form after the pneumatics, the makers were 
able to take advantage of mistakes made in the early days of the latter. Conse- 


tires do not weigh any more than four of 
wood; it is stronger to resist side stresses, as 
sliding against a curb in a skid; it is much 
more resilient; it keeps the tires cooler, for 
the reason that the metal felloe can radiate 
any heat very quickly, while wood cannot. 
This reduces the amount of tire trouble; its 
general form and light weight lend them¬ 
selves readily to the detachable w'heel idea. 
This makes it possible to change the whole 
wheel and tire as quickly or more quickly 
than the wheel and rim in the case of de¬ 
mountable rims, or the tire alone in the case 
of Q D tires. 

303. In general, are wire wheels made in 
the same sizes as wood? No; as mentioned 
1 reviously under tires, wire wheels gener¬ 


ally are made to take tires of smaller diam¬ 
eter but larger cross section than is the case 
with wood. 

304. What is the advantage of this? The 

tire costs are about equal. For instance, a 
36 X 4 will carry safely on a front wheel 900 
pounds. A 32x41/^, four inches smaller in 
diameter but inch larger in cross section, 
will carry with safety 950 in the same place 
The latter will cost just a little bit less than 
the former. This change, if it were forced 
by a change to wire wheels, would lower the 
car by a full two inches, bringing the center 
of gravity that much lower and making the 
car correspondingly much safer to drive. It 
would hold the road better at speed, take 
corners better, and vTth the driring gears 










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260 


Rims, Wheels and Solid Tires 


quently, we find all solids removable from their wheels. In general, solid tires 
are made with some metal incorporated in the base. Formerly this consisted of a 
series of wires, running around the base of the tire, or of a wire mesh or screen, 
several folds of which were incorporated in the base portion. The latter has been 
abandoned to a large extent, while the former has been modified by the addition 
of short cross wires. The better known products of the large companies, how¬ 
ever, have a fairly thick metal ring for the base portion, to which is vulcanized a 
fairly hard rubber, somewhat like vulcanite. Above this comes a softer material, 
while the tread portion may be a more or less hard composition, or a fairly pure 
and somewhat soft rubber. 

Whichever construction is used, the metal base may be redeemed at the tire 
company’s office, an allowance being made for this on the new tire purchased in 
its stead. Usually, however, it is not possible to wear the rubber right down to 
the metal base because of the attaching flanges which project above this. Some 
solid tire forms seen in Fig. 122 show both the tire construction and the attach¬ 
ments to wheels very plainly. In this, the forms at the left represent sections 
through typical single tires, while those at the right are all of the dual form. 



POLACK REPUBUC GIBNEY DUAL. SWINEHART DUAL 


Fig. 122.—The Typical American Forms of Solid Tires in Single and Dual Types. All These Are Named 
so That It Is an Easy Matter to Pick Out Any Particular One. The Sketches Show Cross 
Sections, the Solid Black Parts Indicating Solid Metal. 


The first form shows one which is pressed into place and then held by means 
of a ring which fits down into a groove cut in the extra felloe band. The ends of 
this are held by means of screws. The second form has a form somewhat similar 
to a Q D rim for pneumatics, this consisting of a ring which fits tightly against 
the tire and having a square groove in its lower corner. The felloe band carries 
, a downward projecting lip which is semicircular in shape. A locking ring which 
; fits into both of these is used, this being sprung into place. Its natural spring 
I tends to force it outward, and it can be loosened by pulling it inward. Conse¬ 
quently, when once sprung in place, it holds tightly. 

The next three forms are alike as to fastening methods, although differing 
slightly in details. In all these, the tire is pressed on against a stationary flange 
on one side, after which another flanged ring is put on the outside and pulled up 
tightly by means of a series of through bolts. In the case of the first one, both 


changed to compensate for the loss of speed 
the whole car would act better. Who ever 
heard of a racing car with tires of large 
diameter? 

305. Is it advisable to buy oversize tires? 

For city use, no; but for country work and 
long-distance driving, emphatically yes. Ev¬ 
ery cent spent on the larger sizes will come 
back to the driver with interest in the latter 
case. 

306. Wby do oversize tires not pay on city 

streets? The tires are worn out by the 
streets and the material on them, car tracks, 
etc., by cutting on tracks along the treads 
or rubbing along the sides, by unusual wear 


due to frequent stopping and starting; in 
short, by conditions which have little to 
with the normal wear and natural mileage 
possible in the country. Under such cir¬ 
cumstances, the small tire has been found to 
give as great a mileage as the oversize. 

307. Is there mucii danger from overin- 
flation of tires7 Very little, except in the 
very hottest weather, according to the tire 
people. In actual practice, much more com¬ 
fort is obtained with little departure from 
the expected mileage by keeping the tire 
pressure just a few pounds—say, not over 
5—below the maker’s recommendations. 























































t 



262 


Rims, Wheels and Solid Tires 


flanges have curved portions which fit around a similar curved part of the tire, 
while the second and third have fairly stiff projecting lips which guard the tires 
against shocks from the sides. 

In the dual forms, it will be noted that similar arrangements of the tire base, 
felloe bands and rings are used, except in the case of the Firestone dual. In this 
the demountable idea is carried out, and provision made for removing the tire 
more quickly and easily than in the other instances, in many of which a special 
press is needed to put on or take off a tire. In this one, the underside of the tire¬ 
carrying rim has a pair of projections which are tapered to match a pair of 
tapered seats ‘formed on the special felloe band. One tire is put on from the 
outside, the other from the inside, both being wedged into place by means of 
outer wedging rings, which in turn are forced up to place by means of stout flat 
bands. The nuts act against the latter. In order to remove an inside tire without 
touching the outer one, it is only necessary to take off the nuts from all the bolts, 
and then drive the bolts out, so that the inner locking band can be removed. This 
lets the wedging ring drop off and permits the removal of the inside tire. The 
process of taking off the outside member is exactly the same, except that it is 
not necessary to drive the bolts out, simply removing the nuts. Some makers 
space the dual tires apart by means of a filler piece; others allow them to come 
right up against one another. In defense of the latter course, it is held that 
stones or other foreign material are not as likely to wedge in the space between 
the tires on account of its being very small. Consequently, it gradually fills up 
with dirt, and then there is no possibility of stones, bolts or nuts wedging in there. 
With the tires separated one-half inch or more, there is formed a considerable 
opening, and good-sized stones, as well as pieces of wood, iron, etc., get wedged 
in there and cause trouble. 

On the other hand, the widely separated tires of equal size present a wider 
base, and as a result a more stable one. This additional width is an advantage on 
poor roads, and where the wheel tends to dig in soft ground, the digging tendency 
would be resisted better. Under the stress of heavy or fast work, solid tires 
heat up considerably, and this is very destructive. The more widely separated 
duals would have a better opportunity to cool off, as the space between them will 
allow of better radiation of the heat. Where the tires are set close together, the 
weight of the load flattens the surface rubber down until the sides of the two 
meet and present practically a flat surface of rubber to the road, slightly wider 
than the base of the two tires. When they are more widely separated, the flatten¬ 
ing action is greater, as each one has more freedom on the sides. In this way, a 
greater surface is presented to the road, and the total wear is greater. 

Practically all heavy trucks present single solid tires in the front and duals 
in the rear. On lighter wagons, up to as high as 3,000 pounds’ load, it is cus¬ 
tomary to use solids in the rear and pneumatics in front. Another practice which 
is becoming quite common on cars of this size is to use dual pneumatics in the rear 
and single pneumatics in the front. By making these of the same size, the car 
uses six tires all on one side. Buying these all at one time, a slight economy is 
effected in that a somewhat better price can be had. In addition, all tires are 
interchangeable. 


308. Is there much danger from underin¬ 
flation? Yes; it is said that almost half of 
tire troubles come from serious underinfla¬ 
tion. This causes rim cutting-, which ruins a 
tire and which cannot be fixed, even before 
the tread has begun to show signs of wear. 
It causes a loosening of the tread all around, 
giving it a wavy appearance. This may or 
may not be repaired by retreading, accord¬ 
ing to the condition of the balance of the 
tire. If a tire is kept up nice and round, 
there will be little danger from either under 
or overinflation. 

309. Do tire chains put on to stop skid¬ 
ding injure a -tire? Not very much, if ap¬ 
plied properly and according to directions. 
They should be allowed to float or move 


around the wheel, for if fixed in one place 
they will start to cut, and if kept on for 
any length of time, will go right through the- 
tread rubber wherever there is a cross link. 

310. Do extra tire treads put on over the 
tire to stop skidding and give greater mile¬ 
age injure a tire? Not if put on properly in 
the first place. If put on so that there is 
nothing to rub or chafe, no heating will oc¬ 
cur, and this is the greatest, perhaps the 
only, source of trouble with these. Gener¬ 
ally, when new, they are so stiff that the 
amateur dri-ver is willing to let them go any 
near the right place. This is a serious mis- 
old way as soon as he gets them somewhere 
take, ^nd will lead to heating, possibly cut¬ 
ting and other troubles. 






J 1 « 



Kims, Wheels and Solid Tires 


264 ^ 


are of wood generally, although the steel wire form is coming into 
WHEELS use very rapidly, and the season of 1914 saw perhaps one-tenth of 
the new cars so equipped, while 1915 will doubtless see at least one- 
third of the new vehicles and practi¬ 
cally all of the higher ones so fitted. 

This is an unusual situation, for in the 
beginning the majority of cars were 
made with wire wheels, which went 
out of use very gradually. These were, 
however, bicycle wheels, and as cars 
became heavier and larger in every 
way they could not do the work satis¬ 
factorily. With their practical aban¬ 
donment by the automobile industry, 
wire wheel builders began to improve 
their product, with the result that they 
have produced a dififerent form which 
is admittedly superior to wood in ev¬ 
ery way. This being the case, it is but 
a question of time until public preju¬ 
dice against them is removed, when 
they will become well-nigh universal. 

The first wood wheels were of the 

SO-Called Sarven type, adopted from Fig. 123. —Typical American Artillery Type of 

Wood Wheel, as Used fof- Motor Cars, Shown Be¬ 
fore the Band Is Shrunk on the Outer Circumfer¬ 
ence or the Hub or Hub Flange Bolted in Place. 

carriage and wagon building, but 
from this was developed the artil¬ 
lery form in which the inner ends 
of the spokes formed a series of 
wedges which completed a flat but 
very strong construction to which 
the hubs could be bolted. One of 
these is shown in Fig. 123, this 
bringing out clearly the construc¬ 
tion. Each spoke is formed with 
an oval section up to its extreme 
end which has a round portion to 
fit into a hole bored in the flat, 
curving sections forming the fel¬ 
loe. The inner ends have a flat 
shape from one side and that of a 
wedge from the other, so that 
when the wheel is assembled the 

Fig. 124.—A General View of a Wire Wheel, Showing How 8, lO Or 12 SpokeS, aS the CaSe may 
the Spokes Radiate from the Inner, Outer, and Center i „i .*. 1 . 

Portions of the Hub and Flange. he, form a Complete circle there. 




282A. What is the advantagre of using' 
these treads? The tire can be used until 
perhaps two-thirds of its normal mileage 
has been gotten, then by putting on the 
steel-studded leather cover, which costs less 
than one-half a new tire, an additional 5,000 
to 6,000 miles may be obtained. This is said 
with the proviso that the old tire is in good 
condition throughout except for the natural 
wear on the tread which has taken place. 
An additional point is that the steel-studded 
leather cover is puncture proof, so that 
while using it, the motorist can forget the 
ordinarily troublesome puncture. 

283A. If the car is put up for the winter, 
is it advisable to do anything with the tires? 
Yes, the best plan is to release the air, not 


all, but leave just enough to keep the tubes 
fairly rounded out, if the tires are to be 
left on the wheels. A better plan is to 
take the tires off entirely, deflate the tubes 
altogether and roll them up, and put away 
in a pasteboard box, in much the same man¬ 
ner as they come. Then wash the casing 
clean, allow it to dry, and then cover all 
over, winding with the paper tire makers 
use, or with any substitute. Then hang 
them in any cool, dark, dry place. 

284A. Why must tires not in use be kept 
in a cool, dark, dry place? Because the three 
greatest enemies of rubber and those which 
will cause it to deteriorate mo.st rapidly 
are light, preferably sunlight, heat and 
dampness. Naturally one does not get all 

















































266 


Rims, Wheels and Solich Tires 


The central hole is for the hub, while the extremity of the flat portion marks the 
outside size of the hub flan,e^e. A steel band is shrunk on the outside, thus binding 
the whole wheel together firmly. Attention has been called to this previously. 

In one certain make of wheel, instead of a flat side for the wedge-shaped 
ends of the spokes, these are tongued and grooved, the tongue of one fitting into 
the groove of the next. In this way lateral stability and strength was given to 
the wheel at a point where they were most needed. 

It is due to this 
very lack of lat¬ 
eral strength that 
the wire wheel is 
making such rap¬ 
id progress. In a 
sideways d i r e c- 
tion, the wood 
wheel is lament¬ 
ably weak, while 
. the frail-looking 
wire form has 
been found to be 
many times as 
strong. M o r e - 
over, as soon as 
the wooden form 
has been struck 
several blows, the 
wheel begins to 
part so that but a 
few more blows 
are necessary in 
order to render it 
unfit for use. 

With the wire form, on the other hand, it has been found that after as many blows 
as will break a wood wheel apart, the wheel, though badly bent, is still strong, 
and may be used. 

In vertical strength, the wire form is not only stronger, but is much more 
resiKent, so that a car equipped in this manner rides more easily than with wood 
wheels. Its greatest feature, however, lies in its lighter weight. This is enough 
less so that five wire wheels—that is, the four on the car and a spare—do not 
weigh as much as the usual four wood wheels. At the present time, the cost of 
these is more than wood, but as soon as they are used in sufficient quantities to 
bring the price down, there is no doubt that their greater simplicity, cheaper ma¬ 
terial and other features will make them cheaper than wood, the raw material for 
which is more difficult to get and more expensive every year. 

When this is brought about—wire wheels will have every possible advantage 
—greater strength, lighter weight, better riding qualities, easier on tires, and 




Fig. 125.—Sectional View of McCue Triple-Spoke American-Built Wire Wheel. 

At the Left, a Rear Hub; at the Right, a Front Hub. Note How 
the Triangular Arrangement of the Spokes Makes a Stronger Con¬ 
struction, 


three at once, as a damp place would sel¬ 
dom be a warm one. Of the three, light is 
the worst; so, even if you do not do any¬ 
thing else to the tires when they are not 
in use, be sure to cover them thoroughly. 

285A. What can be done to the rim at 
the same time? If the tires are removed, it 
is both a good opportunity and an excellent 
plan to paint the rims all over with some 
kind of rust-preventing paint. This should 
be put on in a thin coat, and, if after 
thorough drying, this does not seem thick 
enough another may be put on. If for any 
reason the owner does not wish to apply 
such paint, the rim should be coated with 
a graphite grease. This can be rubber on 
thoroughly, but when using in the spring 
as much of the grease as possible should be 


removed with a cloth before putting a tire 
on it. 

286A. Is it advisable to run on the rims 
in an emergency? If the car is not too 
heavy and the distance short, over good 
road surfaces, the motorist can proceed very 
slowly, and without damaging anything. If 
the rim is of the Q. D. type, it will be neces- 
.sary to remove the loose ring and the lock¬ 
ing ring on the outside, as otherwise they 
would be lost. If this is done at all fast 
.or carelessly, the rim will be spoiled and 
will necessitate a considerable expense and 
much trouble to repleace it, 

287A. What other precautions should be 
observed in a case of this kind? It goes 
almost without saying that the casing and 











































































































^68 


liims. Wheels and Solid Tires 


cheaper. At present, the price and popular prejudice prevent their extensive use, 
but they are gaining very rapidly. 

The form shown in Fig. 124 gives a good idea of their general appearance 
when viewed from the side. This, however, is a double-spoked form, which has 
been superseded quite generally by the triple-spoked type. The three rows of 
spokes are used in order to get greater strength and resilience. In addition to the 
features mentioned above, the form of the wheel lends itself well to the demount¬ 
able feature. This is so closely interwoven with the wire wheel that the latter is 
generally thought of as demountable, when such is not the actual case. Fig. 125 
shows a demountable of the latest type, while Fig. 126 gives a good idea of the 



Fig. 126.—American Car of Moderate Price, Equipped with Wire Wheels. View Taken from 
the Rear to Show the Extra or Fifth Wheel as It Is Carried for Emergencies. The 
Five Weigh Less Than the Usual Four Wood Wheels. 

excellent appearance of a car when equipped with wire wheels. In general, these 
are made in small diameters of wheel, but for large cross sections of tire. That 
is, the wire wheel has been developed for small diameters only, and none of these 
measuring 36, 38, 40 and 42 inches are marketed as yet. The equivalent of these 
large diameters, as to carrying capacity, is made up by using larger diameters. 
Thus, in place of 38x4, we would find a 34 x 5 or 5^/2 used. This makes for a 
lower-hung car, a positive advantage which car makers 'have been trying to get 
for many years, but the demand for bigger and bigger tires has caused them to go 
in the opposite direction. 


tube should be removed, as running any dis¬ 
tance on them would cut both into pieces. 
A tube can be finished in less than 110 yards, 
while half a mile will just about finish a 
casing. 

288A. Is there anything that can he done 
in a case of this sort to make sure the rim 
will not he damaged? If the motorist car¬ 
ries a tow rope, or can obtain any rope in 
the neighborhood, this can be wound tightly 
around the bare metal rim, and the end 
fastened with twine, wire or in some other 
manner. Then, if water be poured over the 
rope it will shrink enough to take a still 
tighter hold on the rim. It goes without 
saying that it should be wound around in 
the direction in which the wheel is traveling 
and not at right angles to it. In the latter, 
the rim would tend to cut each turn of the 
rope at every revolution. In the other way, 
there is no tendency to cut. If sufficient rope 
is available, the motorist can wind on enough 
so that it stands up higher than the edge 
of the rim, and thus, the latter will not 
touch the ground. Motorists have been 
known to run miles in this manner. 

289A. How would a person figure out how 
many turn of rope were needed, and what 
length? Three and one-seventh times the 


diameter will give the circumference. The 
width of the rim divided by the size of the 
rope would give the number of turns which 
can be put on in one layer. This number 
of turns times the circumference would give 
the length needed for one layer. For two 
layers, double and add about 10 per cent. 
As an example: Suppose a wheel bare of 
its tire is 30 inches in diameter and 2% 
inches wide. This gives a circumference of 
3 1-7 times 30 or 94.3 inches, or say 8 feet. 
If the rope were 1 inch in diameter, three 
turns to a layer would be needed, and say 
two layers put on. This would be twice 
8 feet plus 10 per cent., or say 17 feet. 

290A. How should solid tire he treated? 

Just like pneumatics, with the single excep¬ 
tion that they are not susceptible to punc¬ 
tures or blowouts. The rubber should have 
just as much thought and care; the fasten¬ 
ings should be looked after equally as well 
and just as frequently; small cuts and large 
ones should have the same attention. In 
general, rubber tires need about the same 
care whether they are made up into the 

pneumatic or the solid form. Any driver 

who goes on this assumption will have the 
lowest tire cost per mile travelled, and the 
least tire trouble. 














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CHAPTER VIII. 


Gas and Electric Lighting and Starting. 

Speaking broadly, gas for lighting has the prime advantage 
GAS LIGHTING, of simplicity and low cost, both first cost and maintenance. 

The. chief disadvantage lies in the limited amount of gas 
which may be carried in the tanks used, and the inability of the makers to eliminate 
leakage when the system is not in use. The first disadantage has been min¬ 
imized by appointing a tremendous number of dealers the country over as dis¬ 
tributors for the tanks so that it is possible to exchange an empty tank for a 
filled one almost anywhere, at practically any garage. A decidedly minor point 
lay in the fact that the amount and character of the illumination was limited, 
but this was not brought out until the perfection of the electric system showed 
the possibilities of using i8, 20, and higher candlepower bulbs. In our larger 
cities, the use of these has brought forth anti-headlight ordinances. 


is now considered a part of every car except the very 
ELECTRIC LIGHTING cheapest forms, and even on those it is making rapid 

progress. Starting about 1909, it made little-progress 
that year, but in 1910 a considerable number of the best makers declared for it, 
which number was greatly augmented in 1911. In that year, too, it began to 
make great advances among the medium-priced cars, while the development of 
the various systems, and the components of the same warranted the statement 
that it was an unqualified success. The next year, 1912, saw its adoption on the 
balance of the medium-grade vehicles and its adoption for all high-grade ma¬ 
chines, together with a considerable number of low-priced cars. With the per¬ 
fection of the various components came quantity production also, which in turn 
made much lower prices possible. This gradual evolution led to its still wider 
adoption in 1913 among the lowest-priced cars, which movement is continuing so 
that perhaps as high as 92 per cent, of the makers of cars will be electrically 
lighted in 1914. 

This is not said in detriment of gas lighting or the use' of oil lamps ; it simply 
shows what the popular trend was; people wanted the greater conveniences of 
the electric form, and were willing to pay the extra first and extra running costs. 
Perhaps the movement toward things electrical on the motor car would not have 
gone so far, if it had been confined to lighting alone, since gas for the head¬ 
lights, with oil for the side and tail lamps, have many advantages which cannot 
be gainsayed. But the great demand for electric starters, together with the agi- 


How to Remedy the Most Common Automobile Troubles 


311, Why has Electric Lig’hting' made such 
rapid progress in the past two years? Main¬ 
ly because of the continual agitation of the 
subject, and a general realization of the su¬ 
periority of electric lighting for home, office, 
and factory use. If it was admittedly the 
best there, it should be on cars also, people 
argued. 

' 312. Is it cheaper than other forms? No; 

more expensive, both to install, which must 
be put into the price of the car, and in oper¬ 
ation and upkeep. 

313. What are the six components of an 
electric lighting system? (1) Battery, (2) 
generator, (3) cut-out, (4) lamps, (5) wiring, 
and (6) operating switch or butons. 

314. Are all these necessary? The gener¬ 
ator may be omitted, and the battery used 
various lights and combinations 6f them. 


until exhausted, then recharged at some 
outside source; but this is bothersome, ex¬ 
pensive, causes long delays, may lead to 
trouble on the road through exhausted bat¬ 
tery, and has other disadvantages. If the 
generator be not used, the cut-out may be 
omitted also. This simplifies the system 
down to its lowest terms. 

315. What are the functions of the six 
parts of the system? The battery furnishes 
the current, and is itself renewed and kept 
ready for use by the charging action of the 
generator. This works through the cut-out, 
which prevents the battery from driving the 
generator as a motor when its speed gets 
very low and the output consequently is less 
than the battery output. The switch is to 
turn on and off the various lights, and gen¬ 
erally consists of a row of buttons for the 


270 





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272 


Electric Lighting and Starting 


tation in the automobile press and daily papers for electrical things, combined 
with the arguments for a combination of the lighting, starting, igniting, and other 
functions into one unit, brought many persons to think that they must have elec¬ 
tric lights, when the others would have answered just as well. Similarly, many 
manufacturers not exactly in favor of electricity on its merits were carried into 
the use of it because of the so-called popular demand for it in household and 
other forms. 

On the other hand, the electric systems added weight in generators for the 
production of current if the system is to be at all permanent, and in storage bat¬ 
teries and wiring. However, the elimination of the use of matches, and the sub¬ 
stitution of a button to be pushed more than made up for these. It should be 
stated at the outset that it is possible to maintain a lighting system with a stor¬ 
age battery only, but this limits the lights which can be used, practically to the side 
or tail lamps only, and at that for a very short time. Thus, to show this by a 
specific example: The ordinary tail lamp of 2 candlepower takes .42 amperes; 
the usual two side lights of 3 candlepower take (together) 1.26 amperes, and the 
ordinary 21-candlepower headlights require 7.00 amperes. An ordinary sized 
and commonly used storage battery is the 6-80—that is, delivering 80 ampere- 
hours at 6 volts. With this battery connected up to the various different lamps 
and starting with it fully charged, and using it until fully discharged, the length 
of time during which such a battery will give light is as follows: 


Tail light only. 

.42 amperes 

190.5 hours 

Two side lamps. 

1.26 “ 

63-5 “ 

Side and tail lights. 

.. 1.68 

47.6 “ 

Two headlights .. 

.. . 7.00 “ 

11.4 “ 

Head and tail lamps. . .. , 

•.. 742 

10.7 “ 

All lights . 

... 8.68 

9.2 “ 


Perhaps even this statement will be made more clear if these be reduced to 
nights of use. Supposing that the ordinary night’s driving averages 3^ hours, 
then these figures mean that the battery will allow the driver to use the lamps in 
the combinations given for this number of nights, and no more: 


Tail light alone . 54 nights plus 1.5 hours 

Two side lights only. 18 nights plus .5 hours 

Side and tail lights. 13 nights plus 2.1 hours 

Headlights only . 3 nights plus .9 hours 

Head and tail lamps. 3 nights plus .2 hours 

All lights . 2 nights plus 2.2 hours 

The results are not, of course, the same as those obtained with the largest 
possible storage battery; in fact, the 6-100 and the 6-120 sizes would give results 
just 25 and 50 per cent, higher respectively. But the cost of these is much 
greater, while their weight is much more and the increased size calls for a larger 


The wiring conducts the current from the 
battery to the lamps through the switch. 
There is also wiring, of course from gener¬ 
ator to cut-out to battery. 

316. Should the generator fall to work, or 
If its shaft broke, or a wire from it to the 
cut-out parted, what would happen? Nothing 
of much consequence, as the battery doubt¬ 
less would be fully charged at the time. It 
would continue to supply currents to lights 
and for starting so long as the amount of 
current which it contained lasted. Then the 
driver would find out the need of a charging 
means. If the system were equipped with 
electrical indicating instruments, this con¬ 
dition of the battery would be shown before 
It became serious or before it was too late 
to remedy it. 


317. If a terminal or wire between bat¬ 
tery and cut-out parted, what would hap¬ 
pen? Nothing; the situation would be the 
same as in the case supposed in 316. The 
battery would continue to operate the sys¬ 
tem as long as its supply of “juice” lasted. 

318. Where a single wire is used to suiv* 
ply all the current, and another single wire 
all the return current. Is there not consider¬ 
able danger of these wearing through, fray¬ 
ing or being short-circuited in some other 
way? If the wires are of the right kind and 
properly insulated, there is little danger. A 
single ground will not render a two-wire sys¬ 
tem entirely inoperative, although it will give 
serious trouble. 

319. How about a ground in the so-called 
one-wire system? In that case, a ground 



















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274 


Electric Lighting and Starting 


space in which to carry them. It is for these reasons that the ordinary storage 
battery user clings to the smaller sizes. 

However, these tables show what service can be expected before recharging 
when the storage battery is used directly in the lighting systern, without any 
means of recharging the battery in the car. They show very plainly that when 
this is the situation it is not advisable to use batteries for anything but the tail 
lamp or at most tail and side lights. On this basis, the usual 6-8o, fully charged, 
will last approximately a month before recharging is necessary. On the tail 
lamp alone it would last two months. 

It is a comparatively simple matter to arrange a low-voltage generator any¬ 
where on the car that a rotating shaft is available. This and a suitable electric 
connection that will throw out the generator as soon as the battery is fully 
charged and throw it back in as soon as the battery has discharged down to a 
certa'in point is all that is needed for continuous operation of the electric system, 
even with all lights on. With an arrangement of this kind—the one in most 
common use now—the battery never becomes fully discharged, for the gener¬ 
ator keeps on charging it as soon as the current is used down to a certain point. 

If it were not 
for the fact that 
starting motors 
require a consid¬ 
erable amount of 
current, drawn all 
at one time also, 
this arrangement 
with the addition 
of a motor geared 
up to .the crank- 
shaft somehow 

would provide, in addition to the lighting, a perfect starting system. But the dif¬ 
ferent demands of the starting motor and the lamp bulbs, the radical difference in 
the current pull, is such that when starting is considered many modifications enter. 

To return to the lighting situation, there are three wiring methods in general 
use, called the single-wire, the two-wire and the three-wire systems. The first 
two utilize a 6-volt battery, and all lamps are of the 6-volt type. In the very first, 
the single-wire system, the frame of the car forms the -return path for the cur¬ 
rent—that is, at each lamp and at the battery the frame is used as a “ground.” 
This is shown graphically in Fig. 127. In this system, the wiring is reduced to a 
minimum ; in fact, the whole arrangement is as simple as is possible. 

The lamp bulbs have one side of the filament grounded to the base of the 
lamp, and the other electrode is in the center of the plug. While all this talk of 
wiring, electrodes, etc., may be confusing to the reader who knows nothing of 
electricity, it may be explained in a very few words by saying that a complete 
metallic circuit is necessary or current will not flow. In this case, as Fig. 127 
shows, the frame of the car is used for the ground or return circuit for the cur¬ 
rent, the supply portion of the circuit in each case being formed by the single 



Fig. 127.—Diagram of a Motor Car Chassis, Showing the One-Wire Method of 
Connecting up the Lamps with the Battery, Using the Frame for a Ground. 


other than the usual ones at each of the 
lamps will make the system inoperative. 

320. In the so-called three-wire form, sup¬ 
pose a lamp hums out or the filament be¬ 
comes broken? Except that this particular 
lamp does not give light, there is no other 
effect. As soon as the lamp is provided with 
a good, new bulb, light will be forthcoming 
again. 

321. Is this the case in all systems? No; 

if the lamps are wired up in series, as, for 
instance, 2 3-volt lamps as the tail lamp 
and speedometer light used together in se¬ 
ries with a 6-volt battery, when one lamp 
burns out or goes out for any reason. It 
pulls the other out with it, and makes the 
series inoperative. In the case of a pair of 


6-volt side lamps used with a 12-volt cur¬ 
rent, the same thing happens, when one light 
fails the other goes out with it. 

322. How can 12-volt batteries be used for 
both lighting and starting without this trou¬ 
blesome series wiring? The battery can be 
used as if it were two, each half being wired 
up to a part of the lamps, ust as if it were 
a 6-volt unit. Then, for starting purposes, 
the whole battery is used so as to provide the 
12-volt current. 

323. Is there any defect in this plan— 
that is, anything that would happen to one 
part which would make the others inoper¬ 
ative? No, not as yet, and it has the big 
advantage of allowing the use of batteries 
of high voltage for starting while handling 





















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276 


Electric Lighting and Starting 


wires from the battery to the light bulb, A to the headlights, B to the side lights^ 
and C to the tail lamp. 

In actual practice, of course, a switch would be introduced, if for no other 
reason, for the purpose of turning the lights on and off; as drawn in the figure, 
they would burn continuously until the battery was exhausted. The modern type 
of switch is so made that any combination of these lights may be had, as for 
instance tail lamp only, tail and side lights, tail and headlights, all lights. 


is shown graphically in Fig. 128, this being more 
THE TWO“WIRE SYSTEM of a diagram than an exact wiring layout. The 

battery is located as before, but two wires run 
from it to each of the lights, one to carry the current, the other to act as a 
ground or return, so to speak, taking the place of the frame in the first case. In 
addition, this method presupposes a 6-volt battery, as did the'first, batteries of 
other higher voltages being such as to necessitate a different method of wiring, 
moreover, it requires (as does the first) the use of ,6-volt lamps throughout. 

Briefly, although this seems to show the use of more wire, necessitating more 
work, more cost, 
and more weight 
than in the first 
case, this is the 
standard form, 
this situation hav¬ 
ing been brought 
about by the atti¬ 
tude of bulb and 
connection manu¬ 
facturers toward 
the types of these 
needed in the single-wire system. 

As has been pointed out previously, the battery used alone does not last very 
long, and consequently this method is not in favor except for use with the tail 
lamp only. When a generator is used, however, this makes very little change in 
the wiring, as will be noted in Fig. 129. This represents the same case as Fig.. 
128, except that it is shown in plain view instead of from the side, so as to depict 
all five lamps, while the switch, battery and generator connections are shown. If 
the various wires are followed out, it will be noted that the layout is exactly the 
same as before, although it looks more puzzling. 

As the amateur owner should be able to trace out the various circuits in case 
of trouble, this will be followed through. The positive wire of the battery, 
marked leads directly to the switch, where the distribution to the three cir¬ 
cuits is made. In following these out, it will be noted that it leaves the headlight 
section of the switch and flows to the wire A, which supplies both. Thence the 
return leads back to the one wire taking care of the return from both lamps. 
This arrangement gives a multiple connection—that is, the current does not have 



Fig. 128.—Wiring Diagram of a Two-Wire System, Showing the Additional Wire 
in Each Case, Which Leads Back to the Battery. 


lighting: on a 6-volt basis in the usual man¬ 
ner. It is capable of further subdivision, and 
divided and 30-volt batteries may be used 
for the starting motor, and divided up into 
parts each of which would give 6 volts by 
the lighting wiring. 

324. If a press on the starting button, or 
a pull of the starting lever, as the case may 
be, gives no action, what is the trouble? 
Probably a disconnected wire which has ren¬ 
dered the system inoperative. 

325. If in the case cited above no wire 
was found to be disconnected or worn badly, 
so as to cause a short-circuit, what was the 
trouble? Probably a broken shaft on fhe 
generator or other mechanical trouble 
through the medium of which the battery 
did not get charged. 


326. In this same case, all of the shafta 
were found to be in good condition? Then 
the cut-out was out of order, and allowed the 
battery to use up all of its current in driving 
the generator when the latter had been 
thrown out of engagement. Either that, or 
it had an internal ground by means of which 
the battery discharged. 

327. How can one tell when a storage 
battery is fully charged? By means of elec¬ 
trical instruments. The voltmeter should 
show a reading of almost volts a cell. 
The hydrometer, which is an instrument very 
much like a large thermometer, and is 
dipped into the liquid, should show a reading 
of 1,280 to 1,300. 

328. If the voltage does not reach the fig¬ 
ure named or anywhere near it? Providing 





























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^78 


Electric Lighting and Starting 



To Generotoif 


Fig. 129.—Another Two-Wire Diagram, This One Being Made as the 
Chassis Would Appear from Above, Thus Showing a Pair 
of Headlights and Side Lamps. 


to pass through' one lamp to reach the other, but goes to the two simultaneously. 

Next comes the side-light circuit, the wires being marked D and D'^. It will 
be seen that the return from the former—that is, from the left-hand lamp—joins 
the common return at while that from the latter comes .into it at The tail- 
lamp circuit is equally simple, this joining into the common return at C. If the 
horn were to be connected onto this circuit, it will be connected across ahead of 
the switch—that is, to 
the plus wire, as at E, 
and to the common re¬ 
turn, as at F, the dot¬ 
ted line indicating the 
horn circuit. As this 
carries its own switch, 
no additional switch is 
necessary. If a dash 
lamp is used in this 
system, the tail lamp 
may be changed to a 
3-volt form, and then 
by using a 3-volt dash bulb, the two can be connected in series in the 6-volt sys¬ 
tem. In that case, the dash lamp, which is visible to the driver, gives warning 
when the tail lamp goes out, but this works the other way around also, for when 
one goes it takes the other with it, and the failure of the tail lamp leaves the 
driver without a rear signal and also without any light on the dashboard. 

Parallel wiring is 
used usually through¬ 
out, when 12 or 16- 
volt batteries are uti¬ 
lized. With these, 
there are three op¬ 
tions : Connecting all 
lamps in parallel and 
using 6 volts (the pre¬ 
ferred method) ; put¬ 
ting 6-volt lamps in 
series across the line, 
or using 12 - volt 
lamps. The first named 
calls for the three-wire method of connecting up, this being so called from the 
fact that there are three wires from the battery to the lamps, the former in effect 
being divided into two 6-volt units and sO' wired. By using it in this way, 6-volt 
lamps may be used in connection with a 12-volt starting system, the motor for 
the latter being connected so as to take the maximum voltage of the battery. 

The difficulty with the 12-volt system, which is extremely simple as to wiring, 
lies in the use of 12-volt bulbs in the side and tail lights. The series connection 
has the serious disadvantage that the lights are in pairs and if one of a pair burns 



Fig. 130.—Wiring Diagram of the Three-Wire Method, Indicating the Us.e 
of a 12-Volt Storage Battery with 60-Volt Lamps. The Starting Motor 
Is a 12-Volt Unit, and Takes the Entire Battery Current. 


the cell is a new one, the voltage must reach 
this figure, or it is not fully charged. In the 
case of an old cell, this figure will co?fie 
down gradually as the cell grows older and 
is charged and discharged a large number of 
times. Finally it will reach a point just be¬ 
fore it must have new plates when the max¬ 
imum reading for a fully charged condition 
will be but little over 2 volts. 

329. In charging the battery gets very hot, 
so hot that it is uncomfortable to hold the 
hand on it? It is being charged at too rapid 
a rate. If the temperature rises above 100 
degrees Fahrenheit in charging, the rate is 
too high. 

330. If the rapid charging is persisted in, 
in spite of this knowledge? The plates will 
be buckled and made useless, consequently it 


will be necessary to have them replaced with 
new ones. 

331. If the lights bum dim, what is the 
trouble? The battery may be low in current. 
This, however, is not always the case; it is 
possible that the connections are loose, 

332. What harm does it do to use lamp 
bulbs of a different voltage from the battery 
furnishing current? If the bulbs are of a 
higher voltage, as for instance, 12 used w*ith 
a 6-volt system, they will not show any 
light, or at best practically none. If, on 
the other hand, the bulbs are of a lower 
voltage, as, for instance, 6 used with a 12- 
volt battery, they will burn with unusual— 
that is, extra—brilliancy for a very short 
time, and then will burn out. 

































































































280 


Electric Lighting and Starting 

out, the other goes out with it; in parallel wiring, every lamp is independent of 
every other one. 

To return to the usual method, the three-wire one with a divided battery, 
this is shown in Fig. 130. This may be explained as follows: The headlight 
current flows from the positive terminal to the right-hand lamp, then back to the 
switch, and by way of the wire C back to the point X, which is in effect the nega¬ 
tive of the B section of the battery. This point also forms the positive terminal 
of the A half of the battery whence the current for the other headlight starts, 
passing through the switch to the left lamp then back to the negative terminal. 
In this method of wiring, it will be seen that the wire C performs an unusual 
function in that it carries currents in opposite directions, actually only the dif¬ 
ference^ of the two current values, if there be any, passing through it. When the 
two are exactly equal, as when both lamps draw the same amount of current, no 
electricity passes through the wire C. 

The one side lamp and the speedometer or dash lamp are served by the right- 
hand half of the battery B, while the other side lamp and the tail light draw from 
the left-hand half A. As will be pointed out later under Starters, however, the 
starting motor takes current from both halves, the wiring being across the final 
terminals. This arrangement divides the battery into two 6-volt halves, each one 
of which operates a part of the 6-volt lighting system, while the entire 12-volt 
battery comes into play, furnishing the motor with 12-volt current when starting. 


is a more or less dangerous performance when attempted by hand, 
STARTING and when the person attempting it does not understand what he is 
doing. If the spark be advanced ever so slightly, or if it is pos¬ 
sible for a spark to be created in any manner, beyond a very retarded position, 
there is the possibility of this explosion occurring before the piston reaches the 
top of its stroke. In that case, it will be driven backward instead of forward, and 
from the construction of the starting crank, which is such as to free itself when 
the engine turns forward but to clutch it otherwise, the crank will be driven back¬ 
ward and the operator’s hand and arm with it. 

This is called a backfire, or back kick of the motor, and such accidents fre¬ 
quently occur and persons are seriously injured in this way. The possibilities in 
this respect have been dwelt upon to such an extent in the trade and public press 
that almost everyone having anything to do with cars, and knowing anything at 
all about them, knows that the spark must be retarded before attempting to start 
the engine. The advice is frequently given, although seldom accepted and used, 
that the crank may be held in such a way as to preserve the operator free of 
damage, even if the engine does kick back. 

There are two ways in which this may be done: For the first and simplest, 
the handle of the starting crank should not be grasped with the thumb and fingers 
wrapped a,round it in opposite directions, as is the case with a baseball bat or golf 
club, but rather the thumb should be folded down'alongside of the first finger and 
only the fingers wrapped around the crank. This is shown in the sketch. Fig. 131, 
more plainly than words explain it, the right method being shown first and the 
more usual but wrong way second. 


333 . If the battery'leaks, and the electro¬ 
lyte attacks the metal or wood of the bat¬ 
tery box? This is a sig-n that one or more 
of the hard rubber cells are broken. These 
must be replaced by the factory or its near¬ 
est supply depot. 

334. When electrolyte is spilled, as when 
pouring’ it into a battery in place, or when 
the hard rubber cells break, as mentioned 
above, what should be done? Everything on 
which it falls should be wiped over several 
times and very thoroughly with a cloth sat¬ 
urated in ammonia to neutralize the acid. 
Use the ammonia as strong as possible, or, if 
it is obtainable only in a weak form, use 
plenty of it, and repeat the wiping several 
times. 


335. Iiamps show up dim in very cold 
weather, although the car hap been running a 
good deal and the battery should be foSly 
charged? This is the nature of a battery, its 
efficiency is reduced as the temperature 
drops, and at zero is but 50 per cent. Allow¬ 
ance should be made for this in cold weather, 
and the lamps used as little as possible. 

336. What are the various systems of us¬ 
ing and generating the various currents de¬ 
manded by the modern motor car? These 
consist of the four different combinations 
for producing the three different things—cur¬ 
rent for ignition, a steady demand; current 
production for starting and lighting, an in¬ 
termittent demand, and a motor to permit the 









282 


Electric Lighting and Starting, 


The reason why this simple expedient helps is because the firing back forces 
the crank against the thumb. Ordinarily, it is a difficult and a slow thing to do to 
raise this without moving the fingers, it being natural to let go with the thumb last 
when gripping any round object in this way. 

With the thumb alongside of the fingers, 
when a backkick occurs the backward mo¬ 
tion of the crank simply opens the fingers 
and slides harmlessly through them. 

The second way of avoiding a painful 
accident in cranking is to use the left hand 
instead of the right. This, however, is awk¬ 
ward to persons who are naturally right 
handed, and use the right arm for almost 
everything. When cranking with the right 
hand, as shown at the left of Fig. 132, the 
backward movement of the crank is opposed 
not only by the position of the thumb, as 
just outlined, but also by the whole arm, 
its position at the time in the rotation of the crank when a backfire would occur 
being such that the whole backward force acts upon the forearm. Now in using the 

left hand, even with the thumb wound 
around the crank in natural manner, 
when the point is reached where the 
kick would come, the arm is held out to 
the left in such a position that -no strain 
comes upon it, while the fingers, too, 
are in just the right position to open 
and let the crank go. 

On account of the better grip which 
one almost needs for cranking big mo- 
Fig. 132.—The Wrong and Right Methods of tors, many have learned to crank left 

Swinging the Starting Crank Over Dead Center. i j j • j .. t,i i 

When the Right Hand and Arm Are Used (as at the handed m Order tO be able tO USe SUCh 

AgiVnst^the Arm Directly ^ grip with Safety. While awkward at 

first, it is soon learned, and the writer 

has been assured by those who have learned it that they would not change back 

and use the right hand. 

were brought out to avoid just this; naturally the pos- 
STARTING DEVICES sibility of a back kick has done much to prevent women, 

older people, and others who would use machines a 
great deal from taking to them at all, unless with a hired driver. This cut off a 
tremendous field for the manufacturers, and, from a gasoline standpoint, made 
many converts to the electric vehicle. Furthermore, with the tremendous in¬ 
crease in the size of motors of the years 1910, 1911, and 1912, it made starting a 
most dangerous matter for even the skilled ones. The reason for this is appar¬ 
ent, the larger the motor, the more difficult it is to crank. To' make this diffi¬ 
culty as slight as possible and insure a start on the first turn, so as to avoid addi- 




Fig. 131. — The Right and the Wrong Meth¬ 
ods of Holding the Starting Crank so as to 
Be Safe from a Back Kick. When Holding It 
Correctly, as Shown at the Left, the Fingers 
Open and Release the Crank. 


use of the starting current to turn the en¬ 
gine over. 

337. What are these four combinations? 

Motor-generator-igniter, a single current per¬ 
forming all functions; motor-generator and 
igniter or magneto, the former serving fh 
generate the starting and lighting current Ut 
one time, and acting as a motor for starting 
purposes at another; generator-igniter and 
starting motor, the former acting as a source 
of ignition—that is, as a magneto—and as a 
current producer as well for starting and 
lighting purposes. In this case, the actual 
form of the device is that of a generator, 
the ignition being made secondary. The three 
separate units, each with its own particu¬ 


lar function. In this last case, the magneto 
does nothing but furnish ignition current, 
the generator does nothing but keep the 
starting and lighting batteries fully charged, 
while the motor is used only when starting 
the engine. 

338. Why cannot on© unit be used for all 
three functions? Generally speaking, the 
electrical complication of the one-unit three- 
duties system is a greater disadvantage than 
the mechanical necessities of the two- or 
three-unit systems. The weight added to 
the car is very slight, not in excess of 40 
pounds more for a three-unit system than 
for a one-unit form. 






















284 


Electric Lighting and Starting 


tional turning, the driver would advance the spark a trifle. Doing this success¬ 
fully a few times, made for carelessness, and sooner or later the big motor “got” 
the driver. 

The first starters perfected were mainly of the mechanical form, the idea 
being to substitute for muscular and dangerous effort a mechanical contrivance 
which would do the same work without any danger. This brought forth all kinds 
of levers and ratchet arrangements, including quite a few spring arrangements, a 
few of the latter being fairly successful. Each of. these consisted of a spring 
which was connected up to the motor and wound tightly by it, being held by a 
ratchet arrangement and thrown out of engagement when fully wound. 

When it was desired to start the 
engine, this ratchet was released, 
and the spring proceeded to un¬ 
wind, turning the crankshaft over 
as it did so. When the motor 
started, the spring was wound up 
by it so as to be ready for the next 
time. In actual practice, these de¬ 
vices simply proved the well- 
known fact that the spring is one 
of the least efficient producers of 
movement known. In building 
these, it became necessary to make 
the springs larger and larger until 
the starters became almost as large 
as the motor itself. Moreover, 
with the great increase in the size 
of the spring and the amount of it to be wound, much more power was taken 
from the engine in rewinding it. 

The next development was along the lines of fluid starting, with compressed 
air, the compression pressure of the exhaust, or compressed gas taken from the 
working cycle of the engine, stored in a tank, from which it was released to the 
cylinders through the medium of a distribution valve, when a button was pressed 
or a lever moved. 

The use of the exhaust was not successful, the idea being to utilize some¬ 
thing previously considered as a waste. The trouble lay in the dead, inert gases 
which were introduced into the cylinders, so that these could not fill with fresh 
gas vapor which could be ignited and thus drive the motor. The next step was a 
natural one, substituting good combustible gas under pressure, and obtained from 
the first part of the working cycle of the cylinders, for the exhaust. Theoreti¬ 
cally, this should have been a great success, but it was not, the gas condensing to 
a large extent, thus reducing the pressure in the tank, while it did not prove as 
combustible after standing for many hours as when collected. 

The air starter made considerable progress in the early days of starting de¬ 
vices. Here the idea was to ^employ a separate air compressor to collect com¬ 
pressed air in a tank. With this the pressure could be as high as the construc- 



Fig. 133.—An English Air-Starting Arrangement, Indi¬ 
cating All the Necessary Parts and the 
Method of Connecting Them. 


339. Isn’t this system now in use? Yes; 
one form of it is not only in use, but on 
the several makes which will be turned out 
during the year 1914 will exceed any other 
two single systems in point of numbers. 

340. What is an important element of ev¬ 
ery electric starting system? The overrun¬ 
ning clutch, at the point where the electric 
motor drives the engine. 

341. What is its function? It throws the 
electric motor out of mesh as soon as the 
engine speed begins to pick up. 

342. What is the need of that? The usual 
reduction gearing used from the electric mo¬ 


tor to the engine is about 30 or 40 to 1, this 
varying down as low as 20 to 1, and up as 
high as 45. Then the electric motor will 
revolve about 2,100 r.p.m. in order to make 
the engine turn 70 r.p.m. If the two were 
left in mesh until the gasoline engine at¬ 
tained a speed of, say, 500 r.p.m., which is 
not very high and may be expected as a 
usual thing at starting, the electric motor 
would be driven by it at the rate of 15,000 
r.p.m. or higher. This would ruin it, and 
the overrunning clutch is put in for the pur¬ 
pose of preventing this. 








































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286 


Electric Lighting and Starting 


tion of the tank would allow, this high pressure allowing for and taking care of 
any condensation or leakage. To start, a button or lever connected the tank of 
air with a distribution valve, leading to the cylinder which was ready to fire next. 
The pressure turned the engine over a number of turns, while the rich gas drawn 
in was diluted by the air in the cylinders to a point where firing was easy and 
natural. 

One of these systems is shown complete in Fig. 133, which does not, however, 
make it plain that considerable extra mechanism was necessary for connecting 
and disconnecting the compressor with a driving shaft, as well as for maintaining 
the pressure automatically to a high point. Moreover, the distributing valve and 
its drive and connections with the cylinders and the starting lever or pedal were 
complicated, and added many parts and much weight. 

vSo much was this the case that one very successful development along this 
line dispensed with connecting and disconnecting the air compressor, and al¬ 
lowed it to run all the time. The air suction valve was separated from the tank 
through the medium of a diaphragrn, the movements of which would allow the 
valve to remain open, no air being drawn in in this case. When the tank pres¬ 
sure dropped for any reason, the diaphragm would allow the valve to close and 
the air would be compressed and forced to the tank. 

were tried next, the idea being that with nearly per- 
ELECTRIC METHODS feet compression in the cylinders all that was needed 

for a start was a spark. The simplest method was a 
short-circuiting button connected to the magneto, by pressing which a spark was 
obtained in the cylinder which was next in the firing order. Unfortunately, there 
was no way of insuring that this cylinder would have a compressed charge of 
combustible gas, so if a start did not result on pressing the button, it was neces¬ 
sary to crank in the usual manner. 

A second plan, which was fairly suc¬ 
cessful, was that of rotating the mag¬ 
neto armature at a fairly rapid rate un¬ 
til the motor got a spark or enough 
successive sparks to start it, when the 
armature was dropped back into its nor¬ 
mal place in the cycle. As shown in 
Fig. 134, which depicts the plan view of 
such an arrangement, an extra gear was 

connected to the armature shaft, this p:- „ v- t c* j tt ^ 

meshing with a long rack. ihe latter Several Years Ago, in Which the Magneto Arma- 
was attached by suitable rods and lev- Arran^ement^^^''^^ Rapidly by a Lever and Ratchet 
ers to a button on the dash. At the 

driving connection, there was placed what is called an overrunning clutch, by 
means of which the armature could be rotated enough to start the motor, and 
then when the rack was dropped out of engagement, the usual drive through 
shafts and gearing would pick it up through the medium of this clutch and drive 
it in the ordinary manner. 

To start with this device, the button on the dash was given a quick and vig¬ 
orous pull, which shot the rack forward, engaged it with the gear on the arma- 



311A. What is the danger from starting? 

That the spark will be advanced too far, so 
that the engine will backfire—that is, begin 
to run backwards. 

312A. How is this dangerous? It carries 
the starting crank backwards, and with it 
the operator’s arm. If he has his fingers 
gripped around the handle, as is usual, it 
may break his Wrist or arm, or at least the 
fingers or some bones in his hand. 

313A. How can this he avoided? In part 
by not winding the thumb around the crank. 
In greater part by cranking left hand, also 
with the thumb folded down alongside and 
not around the crank. 


314A. Can this he caused without the 
spark being advanced very far? Yes, if the 
motor is hot—that is, has been running hard 
so as to get very hot, then stands in a hot 
sun, so that it does not have a chance to 
cool off, it is surprising on what a small 
advance the motor will backfire. 

315A. Is it advisable to use dry cells for 
2 '^d why? Dry cells do not have 
sufficient ^ current output to warrant their 
use for lighting. Generally speaking, a set 
of dry cells would not last an hour on a 
big pair of headlights, and a corresponding 
length of time on the smaller side lamps 
and tail lights. Moreover, this current out- 































288 


Electric Lighting and Starting 


ture, rotated the latter a few very quick turns, in which the cylinders each got a 
few hot sparks. The rack automatically dropped out of engagement, while 
springs pulled it and the levers and rods back into place. Consequently, if the 
desired starting impulse was not forthcoming, one simply pulled the button again 

and again. - 

in its modern form, does not represent the best or the 
ELECTRIC STARTING, cheapest arrangement, but, as pointed out previously, 

the one into which popular favor for things electric, 
coming at a time when electric lighting was being considered the best form, car¬ 
ried the electric starter into favor with it. The first popular cry was for a com¬ 
bination of starting lighting and ignition into a single unit. The people said why 



have three different forms of electric current producers on the car; instead, we 
should have but one, doing the three different kinds of work. The answer to this, 
after considerable experimenting, is that the complications incident to making the 
one unit do the three different kinds of work is greater than is the case when all 
three units are used. This is shown plainly in a list of representative makers of 
electrical apparatus for motor cars ; of these, three make single-unit systems, ten 
make two-unit forms, and eighteen three-unit types. That is, in a total of thirty- 
one, but three consider the single-unit form practical. 

There are four possibilities in the units needed: First, the single unit for all 
three functions, as just pointed out; second, the three-unit method, with one foir 
each different kind of work; third, the two-unit system, in which the generator 


put can not be increased in any manner, ex¬ 
cept by the use of a tremendous number of 
coils, wired in series-multiple as pointed out 
previously under ignition. In a case of this 
sort, the money outlay for the dry cells 
would equal the cost or a storage battery. 
W'^hen the dry cells are exhausted, they 
must be thrown away and new ones bought; 
with a storage battery, it needs but an ex¬ 
pense of 25 to 50 cents to recharge it and 
make it as good as new. 

316A. "WTiat is the situation with refer¬ 
ence to air and compressed gas starting sys¬ 
tems? These have some use, but their very 
nature makes necessary additional systems 
for lighting. Why use two widely different 
systems for lighting and starting, simply 


for the sake of having a gas or an air 
starter when the latter is not any better, 
and in some ways not as good as the elec¬ 
tric starter. Other things being equal, too, 
a majority of people would prefer the elec¬ 
tric light to any other form. 

317A. What units are necessary with an 
air starter? First, a meohanically-driven air 
compressor with a means for throwing it 
in and out automatically (mechanically this 
is a delicate piece of apparatus), a tank of 
considerable capacity and able to withstand 
very high pressures for storing the com¬ 
pressed air, a connection with the cylinders, 
one to each and every cylinder and connected 
up to the crankshaft so that the air may 
always be turned into that cylinder which 


















































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290 


Electric Lighting and Starting 


is used as a motor for starting purposes, and fourth, the two-unit form, in which 
the igniter serves as a current generator as well. 

For all three purposes—ignition, lighting and starting—a storage battery 
may be used, but from this it should not be thought that all storage batteries are 
alike and may be used interchangeably. For ignition purposes, a small amount of 
current is drawn, and in consequence a comparatively small-capacity battery lasts 
a very long time. Thus a 6-40 will last for 80 hours’ running if but .5 amperes is 
taken for the ignition, an average figure. For lighting purposes, a minimum of 
5 amperes is necessary, and the battery should be large enough to supply this 
amount continuously for at least 10 hours. Under these circumstances, a 6-80 
battery will give 16 hours’ service. Considering a starting outfit, the same 5 
amperes or more is needed, and there should be a sufficient battery capacity to run 
at this rate for a long time, longer, even, than with lighting. For this reason, it 
is usual to use a 6-100, which at 5 amperes will last for 20 hours’ continuous 
service. 



Fig. 136.—A Detail of the Starting Motor and Switch, Also 
the Operating Pedal of the System Outlined in Fig. 135. 


Now rapid discharging ' 
ability is brought about by 
large surface area of the 
battery plates, and since the 
size cannot be increased 
materially, the plates are 
made much thinner. Long 
life under slow drain of 
current, on the other hand, 
is efifected by making the 
plates very heavy or thick. 
From this it will be seen 
that batteries fall into one 
or two groups—with thick 
plates for long life at slow 
discharge rates, as for ignition, or with many thin plates for a high discharge 
rate, as for starting and lighting. From this, the conclusion is that ignition 
batteries will not serve for either lighting or starting, nor will lighting or starting 
batteries do for ignition; but, on the other hand, starting and lighting bat¬ 
teries may be used interchangeably, except as pointed out previously, the starting 
unit usually has a greater capacity by about 25 per cent. 

Since current is needed for lighting when the gasoline engine is not running, 
obviously the lighting system requires a source of current aside from the rotating 
generator. Similarly, the starting motor must have a source of current when the 
motor is stationary, and one, too, which will furnish a large amount for a con- 

if necessary. This means a storage battery, and, since 
fast by these two systems, it means that a rotating gen- 
in the system to recharge the battery losses while the 

motor was standing idle. 

This is what the generator does; in reality, the battery furnishes the current 
as used by the lamps and starting motor. In the various systems, there are many 


siderable length of time, 
the energy is used up so 
■erator must be included 


is nearest ready for it, and next into the 
cylinder next in order and so on. Then 
there must be a connection for the driver 
to operate throwing it into use, and most im¬ 
portant of all, a valve on the tank which 
will not allow the air pressure to leak away. 
Some of these things are hard to do in a 
mechanical way, whereas with electricity 
they would be easy and simple. 

318A. How about the all-mechanical start¬ 
ers? These represent a makeshift, a means 
of turning the crankshaft over without the 
hand being applied to the actual crank. As 
such they have served their purpose, and 
except for use on the smallest cars, have 
passed out. 

319A. When the electric system of light¬ 
ing is used, what does it mean to add a 


speedometer light, any other dash lamp, a 
trouble lamp, an extra rear light as for the 
number, a light for the step, etc.? In a 

battery system alone—that is, one in which 
the battery must be removed from the car 
for recharging, it will be used up more 
quickly that is all. In the car which car¬ 
ries its own charging generator, which keeps 
the battery fully charged at all times, it 
does not make any difference how many 
lamps or lights are added. In both cases, 
the wiring and switches will have to be 
bought and wired up properly. 

320A. Which form of electric starting 
has made the greatest progress to date? 

In number of cars turned out, the single 
unit, because of its adoption by several of 
those makers turning out great quantities 






































292 


Electric Lighting and Starting 


dififerences in winding of armatures, of current generated, of wiring, of small 
accessories used, in the form of lever or button utilized to throw the system into 
operation, etc. In the main, however, what the user is interested in is what the 
system actually does, and in part only, how this is done. With this idea in view, 
one representative system from each of the four groups will be selected and de¬ 
scribed. This does not mean that the one described is the best or the most praise¬ 
worthy, but simply that it is representative of the group. It will be remembered 
that the four were given as: The three-unit form, in which a separate member 
is used for ignition, starting and lighting; the two-unit form, in which the gener¬ 
ator is used as a motor for starting, so that correctly it should be termed a motor- 
generator ; the two-unit form, in which the generator unit provides ignition cur¬ 
rent as well; and lastly, the single unit, which provides for all three functions—' 
ignition, lighting, and starting. 

In the wiring diagram shown in Fig. 135, there is presented a three-unit sys¬ 
tem, although this might not be recognized at first glance, because of the fact that 



Fig. 137.—Diagram of the Two-Unit System, in Which the Current Generator Carries 
a Timer and Furnishes the Ignition Current. 


the ignition system is not shown at all. That is, by magneto, this and the wiring 
being omitted for the sake of clearness. In the diagram shown of the lighting 
and starting arrangement, it will be noted that the starting motor is separate from 
the current generator, and is connected across the storage battery, while the 
generator connections to the lighting circuit are such that the generator runs while 
the motor is running, and supplies current for lights. The storage battery sup¬ 
plies lighting current only when the motor is not running. Thus, the three sep¬ 
arate units—the starting motor and battery for starting primarily, the generator 
for lighting primarily but charging the starting battery, and the magneto for igni¬ 
tion—are not shown. 

This system is an interesting one, and the method of applying the starting 
current may be of interest. This is a combination of a mechanical and an elec¬ 
trical action. As seen in Fig. 136, the pedals at the right stand almost vertical 
normally. To start, this is depressed to the dotted position shown. This draws 


of cars each year, one of them, for instance, 
using it for two years before it came into 
general favor. In number of different makes 
of cars, the two-unit form probably leads, 
with the three unit a close second. 

321A. What further advantage of a start¬ 
ing motor is peculiar to several of the start¬ 
ing systems now on the market? The con¬ 
nection with the motor is constant, so that 
whenever the engine speed drops below a 
certain fixed number of revolutions, the 
starting motor automatically drives it. This 
makes it impossible to stall the engine no 
matter how much it is slowed down, and a 
load then throwm on. 

322A. Where does this quality show to 
the best advantage? In city traffic, where 
the engine often is throttled down to a 


very slow speed. Then, when it is desired 
to go ahead quickly, the load thrown on the 
engine suddenly, is a little more than it can 
handle, and it is stalled. With this method 
of connecting the starting motor to it, this 
becomes impossible, so that when the load 
is thrown on in such a case, not only is 
the engine furnishing some power "but the 
contents of the battery is available through 
the electric motor, in addition. Considering 
such a condition as stalling the engine on 
a railroad track, this connection of starting 
motor and engine is actually a life saver. 

323A. What must every electric system 
using a motor to turn the engine over, have? 

Among other things, it must have a form 
of clutch interposed between the motor shaft 
and the crankshaft. This may be of the 









































































294 


Electric Lighting and Starting 


back the lower lever, and with it the rod A. The latter in turn operates the lever 
N, whose upper end is marked B. The latter strikes the end of the movable 
shifter C, and moves this forward, carrying with it the spring M and the shift¬ 
ing fork D. The latter moves the gear E along the shaft to which it is keyed to 
the dotted position where it meshes with the teeth milled in the edge of the fly¬ 
wheel. As the starting motor through the shaft I drives the gear H, and this in 
turn meshes with the F on the same shaft with E, the moving of this gear places 
the motor in a position to drive the flywheel as soon as current is supplied to it. 

This is effected by means of the starting switch, shown in partial section at 
the bottom. When the rod A moves the lever N to the right, as just described, 
another lever fastened to it and connected to the shaft O and shown in dotted 
lines moves the latter to the right in a similar manner. This draws the expanded 
portion of the shaft J into contact with the two side members of the switch K, 
thus making an electrical connection between battery and motor. As this action 
takes place at the same time as the making of the mechanical connection with the 
flywheel by means of the gear 
E, as soon as the movement of 
the latter is completed, current 
flows, the motor turns the 
gears, through them the fly¬ 
wheel and crankshaft, and the 
engine starts. As soon as this 
is completed and the engine 
begins to turn over properly, 
the foot pressure meanwhile 
having been removed, spring 
M will have moved the shifter 
D back, carrying with it the 
gear E, so that the starting 
motor will no longer be in 
mesh with the flywheel. 

At the same time, the movement of the levers will have taken / out of en¬ 
gagement with the halves of the switch K, so that the current will have been shut 
off also. One is as important as the other, since the reduction gearing may be as 
high as 20 or more to i ; 20: i being a common ratio, when the engine attains a 
speed of, say, 1,500 or higher, if the gears were left in mesh the engine would be 
driving the motor at a rate 20 times greater than this, or at 30,000 r.p.m. Even 
though wound for very high speeds, any such rate as this would ruin the motor 
at once. Throwing out the electrical connection, saves the current. With the 
motor disconnected mechanically, it becomes quite unnecessary to rotate the gears 
idly, this simply serving to waste current. 

A two-unit system in which the generator serves the double purpose of a 
current producer for starting and lighting, and also for ignition is that shown in 
the wiring diagram. Fig. 137, the combination generator and igniter being seen 
in Fig. 138. This system includes a 6-volt motor for cranking the engine through 
gears, the standard reduction being 34 to i ; a dynamo or generator for charging 



Fig. 138—The Current Generator of the System Shown in Fig. 
137, Showing the Distributor Arrangement on the 
Front End of the Housing. 


roller or any other type which will work 
every time. 

324A. Why is this necessary? W^hen the 
electric motor drives the engine, it does 
so through a reduction gear, which may in¬ 
clude a reduction as high as 35 to 1 or 
higher. On the other hand, if the engine 
were driving the electric motor, this would 
be a multiplying gear in the ratio of 1 to 
35; that is, the electric motor shaft would 
he driven 35 times as fast as the crankshaft. 
This speed would be entirely too high for 
the windings to stand with safety, conse¬ 
quently the roller clutch is interposed to 
throw out automatically whenever the en¬ 
gine speed rises above a point where it 
would be driving the motor instead of the 
motor driving it, and driving it too fast 


because of the gearing ratio which speeded 
it up. Generally, this clutch is set to throw 
out at about 500 R.P.M., as even at that 
comparatively slow engine speed, with a 
ratio of gearing of 35 to 1, the electric 
motor would be turning at the rate of 
17,500 R.P.M. 

325A. Are there many electric lighting 
systems in which the current generator sup¬ 
plies direct to the lamps, so that no batter¬ 
ies are used? No. This is used only on 
motorcycles and the cheapest of cars. It 
has the great disadvantage that there is no 
light when the engine is not running. This 
means that when the car is to be left stand¬ 
ing at the curb, the motor must run con¬ 
tinuously, else there will be no light, this, 
too, no matter how long it is to stand there. 


















































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296 


Electric Lighting and Starting 



a 6-volt storage battery lighting the lamps and for other work; a 6-volt storage 
battery of 120 ampere-hours capacity built for heavy momentary discharges as 
high as 300 amperes, and an ignition timer incorporated in the generator. 

The dynamo runs all the time, while the starting motor is in operation only 
when actually starting the engine. The generator is driven at crankshaft speed, 
the same as the ordi¬ 
nary magneto. This 
commences to charge 
the battery at 250 
r.p.m., equal to 7^ 
m.p.h. with 34-inch 
wheels, and a 3.5 to i 
gear ratio. At 375 
r.p.m., it gives 5 am¬ 
peres ; at 480 r.p.m., 

8; at 575, 10; at 700, 

12, and at 1,000 r. p. 
m., 15 amperes. This 
insures the battery 
being kept charged, 
even at the low 
speeds of city driving. 

In any case of this sort in which a current generator is connected to a bat¬ 
tery and the former is run continuously, there exists the condition that so long as 
the speed of the car is fairly high—say, from 10 to 12 miles an hour or higher—^ 
current will flow from the generator to the battery, which is right and proper. 


Fig. 139.—Two-Unit System, in Which the Generator Acts as a Motor 
Also, the Same Being Connected to the Engine at all Times. 

The Ignition Is Entirely Separate. 



But as soon as the car speed falls much below this (with the apparatus just 
described below 7^ m.p.h.), current will flow back from the battery to the gener¬ 
ator and be wasted. This points out the need of a device which will open the 
circuit automatically as soon as the current reverses. Because of this starting 
point, all devices of this kind are called reverse current cutouts. 

These may be hand-operated, mechanical, electro-magnetic, or chemical; no 
matter of which kind, so long as they do the work. In the system just described, 
this is of the magnetic type, and is incorporated in the dynamo housing. In the 
light of what has just been said, and what was said previously under lighting, the 
ignition and lighting arrangements of this system, as laid down in Fig. 137, are 
plain enough. 

Starting is effected as follows: The first movement of the pull rod on the 
motor, this being operated by rod connections to a lever or pedal at the driver’s 
seat, closes the battery circuit to the motor through a resistance, so as to revolve 
the motor slowly and facilitate the meshing of the gears. Continuing the move¬ 
ment cf the rod causes the motor to operate at full power. The gears are now 




























































































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298 


Electric Lighting and Starting 


in full engag^ement with the flywheel, and the motor is turning over as fast as 
possible. Starting completed, the release of the lever allows the working parts to 
return automatically to their positions. 

Another two-unit system, but 
one in which the generator is 
used as a motor while the mag¬ 
neto is separate and used for 
ignition, is seen in Fig. 139. In 
this it will be noted that the 
motor-generator is positively 
connected to the engine, so that 
it runs all the time. When run¬ 
ning as a generator, it charges 
the battery which provides cur¬ 
rent for the lights and horn, as 
well as for starting. 

The starting motor is put into 
action, by means of a hand lever 
on the dash, depicted at the 
rip'ht. One movement of this 



Magneto 

Distributor 


Distributor 
Coil 


Motor Generator 

Fig. 141.—Side View of an Engine Fitted With the System tums the battery CUrreilt llltO 
Outlined in Fig. 140, and Showing Its Simplicity. The ’ ’ ' • t 

Single Unit Is Seen at the Right, Marked Motor Gen¬ 
erator, the Coil and Distributor at the Left Being 
Parts of the Ignition System. 


the motor, and since this is al¬ 
ways connected with the crank¬ 
shaft, the engine is turned over. 
As soon as it picks up, the switch is moved to another notch, the direction of the 
current is reversed, and the motor becomes a generator which proceeds to build 
up the storage battery. The positive connection of motor-generator with the 
engine has this advantage that the motor cannot be stalled, for as soon as the 
speed is reduced to a very slow speed at which the engine would stall ordinarily, 
the electric system takes up the action, and does not allow the motor to stop. 

The one-unit system depicted in Figs. 140 and in place in Fig. 141 furnishes 
low-tension current from the motor-generator to a distributor coil, thence to the 
distributor proper. In this manner the ignition current is generated, boosted to 
high tension, and timed properly for the firing order in the cylinders. The stor¬ 
age battery used comprises twelve 2-volt cells arranged in four groups, each set 
aggregating 6 volts. An automatic controller connects these four sections in 
parallel, so as to provide 6 volts and 80 amperes for lighting, or in series so as to 
give a voltage of 24 and an amperage of 20 for starting. 

To start the engine with this system, the clutch pedal of the car is pressed 
down and a switch button pressed. The former engages a pinion on the motor 
generator with other gears, which in turn mesh with the flywheel gear teeth. 
The latter allows current to flow from the battery through a magnetic clutch 
actuating the starting mechanism including the motor. As soon as the engine 
starts, the clutch pedal is released, the movement automatically disconnecting the 
starting apparatus, after which the car clutch is operated in the usual manner. 












































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4 


CHAPTER IX. 

The Newest Tendencies in Construction 


NEW CONSTRUCTIONS year since 1907 or 1908, when they were consid¬ 
ered to have been perfected. That is to say, noth¬ 
ing very radical has been brought forth; but by gradual evolution, combinations, 
refinements, etc., constructors have found that the people take kindly to this, that 
or the other thing. Among those things which may be said to have changed the 
most are body lines, for the original motor car body was an adaptation, pure 
and simple, of the carriage, hence its early name, “horseless carriage.” Slowly 
but surely this has worked around in a cycle, until to-day it presents a separate 
entity and one entirely dififerent from anything ever perfected for use behind the 
horse. In short, the motor car body form now presents an individuality. 

The latter-day body possesses, besides difference from carriages, an amount 
of ease and comfort never before known to travelers. This, too, has been the 
result of a gradual evolution; in fact, it was as late as 1912 that lo-inch upholstery, 
now quite general, came into vogue. Then, the perfection of springs and spring 
suspensions have had much to do with the comfortable riding qualities, while the 
gradual elimination of noise and the noise-making parts has contributed also to 
the comfort of the car’s use. Ease and handling and operating have brought 
forth many mechanical improvements, some of them very closely interwoven with 
body work and comfort of riding. 

Thus, the matter of proper control location on the right or left side seems to. 
have settled itself in favor of the latter, while the nature of practically everyone 
to be right handed has located the lever on the right-hand side, which with left 
control becomes the center of the car. The desire to take all hills on the high 
gear—that is, personal disinclination to exertion in gear changing—has brought 
into favor first larger motors, and later a larger number of cylinders, each of a 
smaller size, as exemplified best by the six-cylindered engine. On the other hand, 
this same very human trait has brought out the electric, pneumatic, and other 
methods of controlling the shifting of the gears and other parts of the car’s 
operating members. 

In addition, there have been those different forms of 
MOTOR CHANGES. motor, which have been produced in the natural strife 
for perfection and highest efficiency in this most impor¬ 
tant part of the car. The sleeve valve motor at first appeared about to revolu¬ 
tionize the industry, but the perfection of the poppet form with miore silence than 
before, greater power from a given size dunit than previously, and other matters, 
served to show that this would never be eliminated. In addition, a considerable 
number of other sleeve and rotary valve forms were brought all of more or 
less merit. 

With greater power available, it was natural to look for and find a better 
method of applying this so as to increase the efficiency of the whole car, not of 
a single unit alone. Thus, the worm gear was investigated and modified until 
found suitable for automobile work, following which the skew bevel and others 
. were found available. The four-speed gearset has been developed, also the two- 
speed rear axle, offering in effect six speeds forward and two reverse with a 
three-speed gear box, or eight and two with a four-speed form. 

Summing up, then, the latest forms of mechanical perfection of the motor 
car for 1914 may be placed in some one of nine different classes, namely: (a) 

300 










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302 


The Newest Tendencies in Construction 


Left-hand control and right-hand levers; (b) streamline bodies, with the attend¬ 
ant changes; (c) six-cylinder motors; (d) sleeve and rotary valve engines; (e) 
electric and pneumatic gear, clutch and brake-operating devices; (f) worm and 
skew bevels and silent chains; (g) four-speed transmissions, two-speed axles, 
etc.; (h) cantilever and other springs, underslinging; (i) air compressors for 
pumping tires, and similar labor-savers. 


has come about very naturally, once the automobile 
LEFT'HAND CONTROL reached that stage of perfection where there was 

time to think about such things. The rule of the 
road in England, and fast being adopted in other European countries, is '‘Keep 




Older rorm . Driuer on 
Jide-teosro on Hi^bt Jide out¬ 
ride, loainp ground. 


Later Form- FVot accepted ^enerallu 
Onwer on left aide-Ue^era outoide to 
be ivori^ced by Left hand 


Fig. 142.—Drawing to Show the Advantages of Left Control Location in the Same 
Situations as Indicated in Fig. 142. 

to the Left.” With this form, the right-side position of the driver is such that 
he is nearest to approaching traffic, and thus is able to gauge the distance necesr 
sary to pass it in safety very 
clearly. In this country, on ‘ 
the other hand, we adopted the 
"Keep to the Right” rule, but 
placed the driver on the same 
right-hand side as did the for¬ 
eigners. This stationed him 
where he could not gauge the 
passing distances for an ap¬ 
proaching car very clearly or 
accurately, hence for safety’s 
sake, he was and is obliged to 
give a considerably greater 
distance than is necessary. 

With the driver shifted over 
to the left side, we have the 
condition, under our rule of 
the road, which corresponds 
exactly to the European coun¬ 
tries, and one which they have 
found very safe. There are 
advantages, it is true, of the 
right-hand location. In over¬ 
taking and passing another ve¬ 
hicle, it is our rule to go 
around it to the left, so that 
the driver is able to note just 
how he is passing it. More¬ 
over, in a narrow road, he is able to watch the ditch side very closely. In climb¬ 
ing a hill with a curve just at the top, the driver is placed at a disadvantage, for 




CTodihcation of OlderFbrm. Drv/eron riodification of Later form CormrM 

cJide- Let/erj in centre ~ opera tod into pener&l use. replacing other * 

by toft band: Ohtfenerally adopted. forrTM. Drwer on Left aide . Levero 
ih cePtre-Operated by right hand. 

Fig. 143.—Sketches Which Show the Gradual Progression of 
the Location of Steering Post and Controlling Levers. This 
Indicates Also the Four Different Forms, All of 
Which Are Now in Use. 














































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304 


The Newest Tendencies in Construction 


he does not see the turn as quickly. In turning a corner to the left or right, he 
cannot see as much of the approaching traffic on either street. In pulling up to 
the curb with a passenger, the latter must get out in the street and walk around, 
while in the actual passing of a car ahead the driver is at a disadvantage until he 
is alongside of the car. 




In the sketch, Fig. 142, these matters are 
pointed out graphically, and in much the same 
order as they have been described, and pre¬ 
senting the advantages of left-hand location 
under exactly similar conditions. First, over¬ 
taking traffic with other approaching traffic to 
be considered; second, climbing a hill with a 
curve at the top, turning into a cross street, 
either to the right or left; letting front-seat 
passengers off or taking them on, at the curb; 
and going around a car or cars ahead with 
other cars behind. In short, this second illus¬ 
tration shows just the reverse of the first. 

Granting, then, the superiority of the left 
position, there is another question to be con¬ 
sidered, namely, the location of the gear shift¬ 
ing and brake levers. The majority of people 
are right-handed, or have learned to drive in a 
car whose levers were operated with the right 
hand. If, then, the levers be placed on the 
left side, old drivers using the car must learn 
anew, while novices find it difficult to master 

Pififd oJ.‘'Tj;”iflK‘Transmiss*on il'unft left-arm motions. A further pnsidera- 
Power Plant, Which Gives Center Control tlOll in this placinp- of the IcverS licS in the fact 

Many Rods, Levers and Other Parts. that placing them at the OUtSlde of the Car, nO 

matter which side be chosen, cuts off that side 
in the matter Of entrance and egress. On the other hand, placing them in the 
center, allows the driver to enter from one side and the passenger from the other, 
while if the same be well placed and made short enough, either driver or passen¬ 
ger may get in or out on either side. 

Considering this to be done, the center location then gives the front of the 
car one extra door, so to speak, 
and a greater use of the oth^. 

\Mien the levers are centrally lo¬ 
cated with right-hand control, 
however, their operation is by the 
left hand, and consequently awk¬ 
ward. The whole proposition is 
resolved, then, into the use of left- 
hand location with central levers, 
which means operated by the right 
hand. This and the gradual evo¬ 
lution from the, former right-hand 
location of both driver and levers, 
and some of the makeshifts offered 
the public, are shown in Fig. 143. 

At A, is indicated right-hand con¬ 
trol, with right-hand levers, out¬ 
side the bodv. With the first agi- t -o u- ^ t 

. » 1 r, 1 j.* ^ ^ from Behind of the Control Group of the 

tation for the left-side location, a Car Whose Transmission and Levers Are Illustrated in 
number of firms simply turned the Showing Also the instrument Board. 

entire control over, about the center of the car as an axis, bringing the driver on 
the left and the levers also, as shown at B. 














306 


The Newest Tendencies in Construction 



Fig-. 146.—Control Group of the 
Paige-Detroit 36, Showing the Cen¬ 
tral Levers with Left-Hand Steering 
Post. Note the Cane Type of Gear- 
Shifting Lever. 


A number of other firms, not admitting^ the ad¬ 
vantages of the left position, were able to see the 
advantages of the centrally placed levers, and 
changed theirs from the right outside to the left 
inside, as shown at C. As compared with A, the 
advantage gained of the use of the right-hand door 
was more than offset by the necessity for using the 
left hand and arm, distrusted by many. Finally 
came the simplest and most natural form, that indi¬ 
cated at D, in which the driver is on the left side 
and the levers are in the center. This has all the 
advantages of all the other forms and none of their 
disadvantages. 

This placing of the levers brings them right 
over the transmission, so a considerable number of 
rods, levers, shafts and bearings have been elim¬ 
inated. Besides saving weight and cost, this elim¬ 
inates a number of possible points for wear and 
noise. This is pointed out in Fig. 144, in which the 
levers are shown upon the transmission, while Fig. 


145 shows these in the car, the 
same being viewed from the rear. 
This method of placing the levers 
and controlling the movement of 
the car, together with the need for 
a comparatively short lever of sim¬ 
ple construction so as not to catch 
in the clothes, has brought about 
the use of what is termed the cane 
type. This is a short, light, per¬ 
fectly straight lever with either an 
ordinary handle grip or a round 
ball end. 

Moreover, this position of the 
lever has allowed of shortening 
the movement necessary in order 
to engage any one of the various 
gears. In fact, in some cases, as 



Fig. 147.—Control Group on the Lozier Light Six, Showing 
the Method of Gaining Space for Passage by Setting the 
Levers Forward. Note Also the Grouping of Con¬ 
trol Units, Gauges and Adjustments on the 
Dash Handy to the Driver. 



Fig. 148.—Control Group of the Chandler Six, Indicating the 
Use of Very Short Levers Set Fairly Close Back Against 
the Seats, but Giving Plenty of Passage Space. 
Left-hand Location, Right-hand Levers. 


short a movement as 2 inches 
either way from the neutral posi¬ 
tion would engage a speed, this 
being measured at the top or han¬ 
dle of the cane. The figure just 
referred to. Fig. 144, shows why 
this is, the lever being pivoted ac¬ 
tually at tbe point marked A. 
This gives the lower end of the en¬ 
gaging fork almost as much move¬ 
ment as the handle for the dis¬ 
tances down from A and up from 
it to the top of the handle are ap¬ 
proximately equal. 

This one shows a plain round 
handle, while the forms in Figs. 
146, 147 and 148 show various ar¬ 
rangement, using a ball handle. 
The first two indicate the forward 






















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308 


The Newest Tendencies in Construction 


placing of the levers with a somewhat raking steering post, so that the portion 
of the front toward the seat is free and clear, allowing an uninterrupted passage¬ 
way across. The last named, however, shows the other method of accomplish¬ 
ing the same thing, namely, the placing of the levers back almost against the 
cushions, so that the space or passageway is left in front of them. In this case, 
too, the levers are made much shorter than when they are placed farther forward, 
as in the two previous instances. This will be noted by comparing their heights 
above the floor with the height of the front seat cushions, the levers being consider¬ 
ably above this in one case and of approximately the same height in the other. 

This matter of free and complete use of the front space has given designers 
a great deal to think about. A method by which the same effect is obtained in 
one car is to fasten the driver’s seat by means of sliding members so that it may 
be moved backward or forward as desired. This has the additional advantage of 
permitting the same car to be adjusted to two different persons of widely differ¬ 
ent stature, and consequently of a different length of leg and arm. Another way 
of accomplishing the same thing is to hinge the front seats, as was done on a 
French body seen at the big Olympia show in London, 1913. The front seat is 
divided into two parts, and each of these is hinged in such a manner that it may 
be folded up first and then turned so as to present the least width. By this ar¬ 
rangement, the whole interior of the car becomes one compartment for the time 
being. It is conceivable that this would be very useful in such a case as a camp¬ 
ing-out trip, or a long run into strange country when the tourists got caught 
away from a city and wished to sleep in the car. 


so called because the outside of the woodwork or 
STREAMLINE BODIES, metal offers no obstruction or projections to the 

stream of air passing over it, have not been brought 
about by the commendable desire to reduce the wind resistance of the car, but 
rather to an improved appearance, to the unification of the car brought about'by 
building the body so it appeared a one-unit instead of two or three detached ones 
on the same chassis, and to popular demand following the introduction of fore 
doors. The latter were brought out about three years ago, and were an instan¬ 
taneous success. Following their use, designers of bodies began to smooth down 
the lines of the car so as to pre¬ 
sent a straight curve or sweep 
from the front to the rear. This 
applied to the upper line of body 
and doors, as well as to the bottom 
line and the ornamental mouldings 
between. 

Latterly, the fenders, running- 
board and space between these and 
the body have been closed in, and . 
the curves of all three considered 
in conjunction with those of the 
body. Following this, a slight im¬ 
provement has been made by giv¬ 
ing the outside surface of the body 
a slight outward bulge or curve 
near the middle of its height. 'In some cases, a very neat appearance has resulted 
from placing this about one-third of the height from the bottom, and then carry¬ 
ing the upper portion steadily outward clear to the top. This has resulted in 
gaining several inches in width inside of the body with the same width at the 
bottom, and without making the body appear any different. 

A newer feature of the streamline bodies for 1914 is the curve between hood 
and dash line, this serving for the double purpose of making the hood seem a 
portion of the body, and of deflecting the air upward so as to diminish the wind 
lesistance. In many cases, this has been accompanied by raising the rear end of 



Fig. 149.—Side View of a Stevens-Duryea Six, Present¬ 
ing an Excellent Example of the Streamline Body with 
Upward Curve at the Dash. Rounded Front and Rear 
Fenders, Space Between Step and Body Neatly Filled in 
and Other Features. 







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310 


The Newest Tendencies in Construction 


the bonnet several inches above the front, so that there was a gradual upslope all 
along its length, terminating in the sharp upward curve at the dash. Many of 
these points are seen in Fig. 149, which is presented as a typical streamline body 
of 1914, and in the figures following. 

On examining this body closely, it will be noted that the door handles are 
inside, while the hinges are hidden also. Both of these points have been followed 
out on all the true streamline or flush-sided bodies. 

A point to which attention is here called as it is not seen on this body is the 
elimination of the side lamps which the combination of clean body ideas and the 
marked improvement of electric lighting equipment has produced. The use of 
dimmers and two-bulb headlights has allowed of taking off the side lamps, thus 
further cleaning up the front end of'the body. 




and dashboard radiators have added much to this 
SLOPING BONNETS streamline tendency, having at the same time the advan¬ 
tage of decreasing the wind resistance to a marked de¬ 
gree. Furthermore, this arrange¬ 
ment takes the most delicate part 
of the entire chassis, the radiator, 
out of the danger zone, and places 
it where it is very safe at all times. 

In addition, it may be supported 
better and more firmly than in the 
front position. Besides the well- 
known sloping bonnet used by Re¬ 
nault, Charron, and others abroad, 
and by Franklin, Croxton, Argo, 

Detroit, Borland and the majority 
of electric cars; Kelly, Lippard, 

Stewart, Willet, and a number of 
other commercial cars; Keeton, 
and other American cars, there is 
the wedge shape presented in Fig. 

150. This differs from those just 

mentioned in that the top line of the bonnet is straight 
and does not slant toward the -front, but is horizontal 
and parallel to the ground as far as the first break, 
where it slopes down sharply to the front end, where it 
becomes vertical. The sides, however, slope all of the 
way, sharply from the front edge to the break, and 
slightly back as far as the radiator. This form would 
seem to have all of the advantages of the sloping form, 
while preserving the appearance of the regular type for 
those who prefer it. This body presents another ex¬ 
cellent example of the streamline form, although the 
headlights have been removed. Note the curve of 
fenders, the clean sides and running board, the even 
outward bulge of the body beginning at the radiator 
and continuing to just back of the rear door, where 
the similar inward bulge commences. 

With improvement in bonnets and radiators, in 
order to get a shape with less wind-resisting surface, 
considerable progress has been made with coolers hav¬ 
ing a wedge shape, others with a rounded front, still 
Fig. 1 5 r.— Wedge-Shaped Radi- Others with a modified wedge, and a few with the radi- 
Raiidi3^^"wwreThe‘use'of a^sln- ^^or in two parts. One set on one side parallel to an 
gie Lamp Inserted in the W^ter extreme wcdge-shaped bonnei, and the other on the 
c’ivrBette^^Rlrd Ught^and^sim^ Opposite side similarly located—that is, an extreme 


Fig. 150.—A French Type of Wedge-Shaped Bonnet and 
Dashboard Radiator Location Which Looks Well with 
the Mulliner Flush-Sided Body and Crowned Fenders. 













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312 


The Newest Tendencies in Construction 


wedge shape, but with the sides of the radiator forming the wedge in two sep¬ 
arate parts. This latter form has been widely used in aeroplane work, but there 
the matter of wind-resisting area is of vital importance, while the same cannot be 
said of the motor car. 

The American forms of radiator other than the square-front type have not 
been extreme, presenting only a modest curve or very blunt edge at the front. 
One was brought out with a wedge and having, the single searchlight set flush 
with the upper portion—that is, incorporated within its upper part. This, how¬ 
ever, was soon withdrawn from the market, and this make of car is now sold 
without that feature. The idea of this may be gained from the foreign form 
shown in Fig. 151, the Delacour lamp set into the upper part of the cooler. 



have made little or no advance in this country, as com- 
BOAT BODY FORMS pared with France, where the last Salon, that of 1913, 
saw the majority of the new bodies of this form. A 
good idea of this may be gained from the illustration. Fig. 152, which shows a 
Gobron exhibited there. In this, the wedge-shaped radiator is new. Note how 
the boat idea ls carried out at front and rear, in the projecting sidelamp, cleverly 
designed to look like a ventilator funnel, in the side opening for lighting the 

driver’s compartment, made to 
resemble the forward deck of 
a boat, in the planking and 
copper riveting on the boards, 
and in other ways. In some 
of these boat bodies the boards 
were selected so as to be alter¬ 
nately of contrasting wood or 
colors. When this was done, 
the same idea was carried out~ 
in the fenders, which were 
made of a slat form, like the 
removable bottoms of boats, in the wooden protection for the rear gasoline tank, 
and in other ways. 


Fig. 152.—Boat-Shaped Body on a Gobron (French) Chassis, 
Showing How Faithfully the Boat Idea Is Carried Out in 
Planking, Rivetting, Lamps, Openings, Stern, Etc. 


Of course, these represent the extremes, between these and the ordinary 
streamline forms there were many which should find favor and remain in vogue 
for a long time. The boat idea, with the additional idea of reducing wind re¬ 
sistance to a minimum compatible with a fine appearance, is an excellent one, and 
should result in greater speed and more power from similar sized motors,’ and 
greater mileage on a gallon of fuel, or, on the other hand, should allow of the 
use of smaller motors with the same sized car, thus lowering the first cost as 
well as the maintenance cost. 


at the rear end of the automobile has been set down as one of the 
SUCTION greatest influences in making the car a destructor of highways. It 
is now quite generally conceded that the manner in which this hap¬ 
pens is as follows. Horse-drawn traffic passes over the road, and by means of 
the horse’s shoes and the narrow iron-tired wheels, the surface of the road is cut 
up and the material loosened. Then a motor car comes along, and, through 
suction, picks up this loosened part and wafts it off to the grass, ditches, fences, 
etc., at the side of the road. In this way, the lighter dust is carried off first, then 
later the larger parts of the material comprising the road bed are cut up or ground 
up by the horses, and ‘Flown” off the road by automobiles. With the idea of 
lessening this destructive effect, considerable work has been done toward ren¬ 
dering bodies of such a shape that they would not create any suction at the rear. 

One of these is shown in Fig. 153, the picture taken from the rear, bringing 
out the shape in a marked manner. Note that the rounded bulge at the rear, 
extending down beneath the car frame as well as above it, is for the sole purpose 
of reducing the suction on the road. This does not, however, prevent this same 











t 



The Newest Tendencies in Construction 




shape being- put to useful ends. In this case, the depth and width are sufficient 
to take an entire wheel (of the detachable wire type) complete with inflated tire. 
Back of this, as well as forward to the back of the rear seats, there is additional 
room for other things. On the side, it will be noted that the body is built out so 
as to cover the running board, thus giving the outside of the car an unbroken line 
from the front to the rear. The 
door over this side extension may 
be lifted ofif, when the tool box, 
suit cases, and other things become 
readily accessible. This gives more 
carrying space than the ordinary 
car full of people would need, as 
well as more than enough for the 
tools and mechanical parts, at the 
same time leaving the car with 
clean lines and no projections any¬ 
where. 

The only discordant note in this 
design consists of the freakish for¬ 
mation of the front ends of the fenders to form a holder for the searchlights. 
Viewed from either the front or the rear, these do not look attractive. It will be 
noted in this illustration how the proper construction of the body, along scientific 
wind-resistance-avoiding lines, does away with the importance of the fenders. 
In this case, the rears are simply narrow and shapely extensions of the body 
proper, while in front their principal function is to hold the lamps firmly and fill 
in between these supports and the frame. 


between the step of the car and the frame of body on it 

THE FILLER PIECE is now being made with a neat curve, either convex or 

concave. When the former is used, there is a consider¬ 
able space back of this, and in length extending from the rear end of the front 
fender to the front end of the rear one. With any considerable wheelbase, this is 
quite long, and forms an excellent storage place. On a number of the 1914 cars, 
this is made in several compartments, each with a closely fitting and almost in¬ 
visible door. In a few cases, this space is used for tools, in which case much 

longer and wider articles can be carried than in the conventional toolbox, in 
addition to which the latter is entirely eliminated. The net result is greater car¬ 
rying capacity, superior appearance, one less place to catch mud and dirt, and to 
the manufacturer, at least, lowered first cost. Another firm—or, rather, several 
of them—use this place for carrying the batteries. As has been pointed out 
previously under the heading of Electric Lighting and Starting, this work re¬ 
quires a different form of battery from ignition. Consequently, when two differ¬ 
ent batteries are used, it becomes necessary to find considerable space in which to 
locate them. This new compartment fits m for this purpose very nicely, each side 
providing space for one battery and some tools, thus dividing the two different 
batteries to the two sides of the car, and placing the weight more equally as well. 

Other uses have been found for this space as well, notably the storage of 
side curtains for tops, for parts of the tops themselves, for robes and similar 
bulky objects when not in use. In fact, in a dozen different ways this addition to 
the storage space on the car is found to be of use and extremely convenient. 

has developed into another place, of great utility if not 
THE DASHBOARD for actual storage. If Figs. 145, 146 and 147 be exam¬ 
ined, it will be noted that the deep dashes of to-day have 
forced the use of what is termed an instrument board, for lack of a better name. 
This* is a vertical board, usually of some ornamental wood, set at the edge of the 
dash nearest the driver, and projecting downward a sufficient distance to allow 
of fastening to it all the instruments used, all the control or adjustment parts not 



Fig. 153.—Quartering Rear View of Griffon (French) 
Body Developed to Eliminate all Suction at the Rear of 
the Body at High Speeds. The Novel Shape Is Put to 
Good Use, However, for Spare Wheels, Tires and Tools. 






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316 


The Newest Tendencies in Construction 



placed on the steering wheel or post, the speedometer, the switches of the various 
light combinations, the lamp for illuminating the speedometer at night, and 
various other things. Since this requires a depth of approximately 8 or 9 inches, 
and since the depth of the portion of the sloping bonnet or filler piece between it 
and the actual dash line or the rear end of the motor compartment may vary from 

10 to 18 inches, an odd corner is left. 
This has been put to excellent use by 
locating the gasoline tank there. Of 
course, it required a special tank, of an 
unusual shape, built, in short, to fill this 
exact space; but once the dies and tools 
were made for forming these, it cost the 
manufacturer no more than for a tank 
to go at the rear end of the chassis or 
under either the front or rear seats. 

When one considers the width across 
the form of at least 28 to 30 inches, the 
width fore and aft of from 8 to 10 
inches, and the depth limited only by 
the maker’s idea of sufficient leg room, 
at least 12 inches being available in all 
cases, it can readily be seen that this 
formed a place for a fairly large and 

Fig. lS4.-Dashboard Location of the Fuel Tank tank. In addition, it COUld be 

on the Hupmobile Has Many Advantages, Notably filled from the OUtSlde at any time. With- 
Certain Presaure on all Grades and Simplified Piping. disturbing anything Or anybody, and 

it keeps the fuel close to the carburetor, so that the piping is made very short, 
free from bends, and thus not likely to cause trouble at any time. In case of 
trouble, however, this piping was more simple to remove, clean, and put backr 
than would be the case with the tank located anywhere else. 

Another big advantage lies in the 
fact that the tank is directly above the 
motor and carburetor, so that a grav¬ 
ity feed is possible, no matter what grade 
the car may travel up or down, something 
which cannot be said of any other tank 
location. This insures the use of every 
drop of fuel, and does away with the 
possibility of fuel trouble on hills due to 
poor tank shape and location. Fig. 154 
shows the exterior of a car with this 
kind of a tank, the arrow indicating the 
filling cap. If this were not used, how 
many persons would note the filler, so 
inconspicuous is it? In Fig. 155, a sec¬ 
tion is shown through the forward part 
of the same car, this indicating the loca¬ 
tion and shape of the tank, as well as 
showing the large filler cap and the rela¬ 
tion of the tank’s position to the sloping 
surface of the filler and the flat top of the bonnet, also the steering wheel and 
instrument board. This position of the tank has so few disadvantages, if any, 
and so many advantages that it is bound to grow in popular favor. Next year 
will see many more of the dash tanks in use. 

When this type of tank is used, there are two restrictions upon it; one the 
need for a straight edge toward the driver in order to make a surface against 
which the instrument board will fit tightly, while its bottom line is limited by the 
space needed for the driver’s fet. At any rate, it is possible to obtain a capactiy 
of ten to twelve gallons. 



Fig. 155.—Section Through the Hupmobile 
Dash and Tank, Shown in Fig. 156, Indicating 
the Shape and Placing of the Tank Relative to 
the Other Parts. 























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318 


The fewest Tendencies in Construction 


have not kept pace with the improvements made in the bal- 
TOPS AND TOP ance of the car, although the last part of 1913 saw a great 
CURTAINS improvement in the design and construction of both. There 

were many complaints that side and other curtains were 
difficult to put up, and very slow as well, so that a person often got caught un¬ 
awares in a sudden shower and got soaked through putting up the curtains, even 
though the top was up to start with. Following these complaints, a number of 
successful forms were constructed and applied to tops, which with the top. up 
could be pulled down into position about as rapidly as ordinary house shades. 
These, however, required a special construction of top, consequently were not 
applicable to the forms in use, without considerable expensive alteration. 

Next, forms were developed which were not open to these arguments, conse¬ 
quently the curtain situation may be said to have been simplified to a large extent. 
In the way of tops, those for runabouts gave little trouble, but for touring car 
tops, particularly the unusually large and long cars now being constructed, put¬ 
ting up a top was a two and in some cases a three-man job. The first effort to 
simplify this consisted in the use of bars, which were applied to the side of the 
car first, and then the top applied to these. In this way, it was possible for one 
man to put up or take down the largest tops, but the bars were long, difficult to 
handle, and many persons did 
not like them. 

With the ideas gathered 
from the use of these, top 
makers have now produced 
tops for touring cars which 
one person can put up with 
ease in a few moments. 

These differ from the older 
forms in having a pair of 
extra long bows in front, the 
irons of which fold in the 
middle so that the top, when 
folded up, requires no more 
space than the older forms 
did. When these are ex¬ 
tended, however, the whole front of the top is supported from the iron on the rear 
seat. In short, there is no iron on the front seat, the long bows of more than 
double the previous greatest length taking care of the front support. By doing 
away with this iron and the necessity for lifting the top bodily from the back to 
the front seat for the purpose of making connection with it, the operation of put¬ 
ting it up or taking it down has been simplified materially, and made easy to handle. 

In order to limit the movement of the front end, when putting it up, and to 
render the whole more stable when up, a stout but very small wire is incor¬ 
porated in the construction, so that even if the rear end is put up first and then 
the front end dropped, it must open out in the correct manner, and no harm is 
done. A further simplification and a most desirable one is the doing away with 
the long, awkward and unsightly-looking straps formerly used to support tops, 
these being run down to the very front end of the main frame, in some cases even 
farther, to the forward spring hangers. In their place, a very short and strongly 
built strap is run to a portion of the built-in windshield or of the sloping upper 
surface of the bonnet. The building in the windshield as a component part of 
the car, instead of applying it as an afterthought, as was the case in former 
years, has done much to make changes like this possible; with the former con¬ 
struction, the shield and dash construction were not sufficiently stable to form a 
good place for attaching a top strap. 

The form shown is but one of the many one-man tops now on the market or 
used on the best cars. For 1914, it is surprising how many of the makers have in¬ 
cluded this accessory, while it promises to be even more general in 1915. 



Fig. 156.—Sharrer One-Hand or One-Man Top, Indicating How 
It Is Possible for Any One Person to Raise This in a 
Short Time and Without Assistance. 









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320 


The Newest Tendencies in Construction 


have made tremendous strides in the past few 
SIX’CYLINDER MOTORS years. Although brought out as long ago as 1907, 

they attained very small proportions in the industry 
until 1910. In that year, the previous small number of makers who were turning 
out this type exclusively, having abandoned fours, was augmented by several 
of the manufacturers generally rated among America’s best. This was sufficient 
to turn the tide in favor of sizes, and to-day there are very few high-grade 
makers who have not at least one six, the same being true among the medium- 
grade machines listing above $1,800. Moreover, among the very best makers, 
there is to-day a very small number not making sixes exclusively. This is but 
another way of saying that the highest-grade firms, after trying out the six for 
several years, have abandoned fours in favor of the six. 

What is the reason for this movement? It cannot be summed up in a few 
words, but from a mechanical standpoint, the six-cylinder engine has a superior 
balance—that is, there is no time in the complete cycle of events when there is 
not a propelling impulse being given to the crankshaft. In the four and all 
smaller numbered cylinders, there is a point—in fact, there are several points—in 
the cycle when the cylinders are not putting forth a propelling impulse—that is, 
when the crankshaft is being driven through the energy stored in the large ro¬ 
tating mass of the flywheel. By way of stating this fact in another way, it may 
be said that this is what the flywheel is for, so that the more even turning effort 
of the six makes a flywheel less necessary. 

As a matter of fact, some of its more rabid adherents claim this as one of 
its advantages, and an English firm, devoted largely to the six, several years ago 
constructed one without a flywheel and drove it several thousand miles in all 
kinds of traffic for the purpose of proving this particular point. At slowest 
speeds, it is desirable to have some such source of energy, however, and engines, 
even the most perfectly balanced sixes, will always have flywheels. The more 
perfect balance and more evenly distributed turning effort allow of the flywheel 
weight being less than a four-cylinder motor of equal power, hence some weight 
is saved to offset the greater weight of the engine itself. 

Since the power production of the engine is more even and regular, with a 
continuous turning effort throughout the cycle, it follows that a very much smaller 
size may be used to produce the same power as with a four. Besides reducing 
cylinder sizes, the individual impulses or explosions are not so violent, conse¬ 
quently the wear is less and the noise of each power-producing explosion is 
smaller. Consequently, it is claimed with good logical reasoning that the six is 
more quiet and will have a longer life. 

Since the power impulses of the six overlap so that there is a continuous 
production of energy, with no gaps in the cycle, it is claimed that the six is more 
efficient. As a consequence of this, it is claimed further that a six will develop 
more power in proportion to its size than a four of equal cylinder capacity—■ 
that is, for instance, of a bore 50 per cent, greater and equal strokes. At any rate, 
the advocates of the six credit it with better hill-climbing ability, and if not 
greater speed at least with easier and smoother riding at equal speeds. 

With the matter of tires, it is said that the smaller individual power impulses, 
coming more evenly and overlapping, turn the wheels continuously and more 
regularly, consequently the tires are jerked less at starting and whenever increas¬ 
ing speed. This being the case, there is considerable logic in the claim for a 
longer life of tires under a six than under a four of equal power rating and equal 
weight. Moreover, it is claimed that this same jerking, which does much to wear 
out tires, wears out the roads, so the sixes are credited with being easier on road 
surfaces as well. 

Against the six, it has been claimed that the fuel consumption would be 
greater as well as that of oil. The adherents of the six refute this, on the ground 
that the fuel consumption is governed by the cubical capacity of the engine as a 
whole and its efficiency, also as a whole. If for equal power development, the 
six may have a smaller cubical capacity and show a higher efficiency, they say, it 



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822 


The Newest Tendencies in Construction 


follows that its fuel consumption will be less instead of greater. Similarly with 
lubrication, they say this is proportional to the surfaces in contact and the speed 
at which they travel. If these surfaces are less, and the engine rotates at a much 

lower speed to develop the same power, it follows 
that the lubricant used on a six will be less instead 
of more than a four of equal power. 

Other points which are brought out in favor 
of the six are the absence of vibration, and the 
lessening of gear shifting through the ability to 
accelerate or decelerate the engine more quickly, 
easily, and with less possibility of the engine 
“knocking.” In the matter of vibration, even 
though this be slight at low and moderate speeds, 
at high rates of revolution it is considerable, and 
quickly tires the driver as well as anyone traveling 
in the car. Many persons are wholly unconscious 
of the reason why, but know that on certain cars 
they feel tired after a comparatively short ride. 
This is the result of excessive vibration. 

Since there is less in a six than in a four, due 
to more perfect balance, overlapping power im¬ 
pulses, and no dead center points, this must be 
more easy and comfortable to ride in, whether for 
a short or a long distance. More and more people, 
particularly American people, are getting to the 
stage where they demand a one-speed car—that is, 
one of such a design and construction with such a 
quantity of power as to be able to accomplish 

__ everything upon the one speed, and that the high 

speed. This is what has produced such a great 
increase each year in the size of power plants, un¬ 
til to-day by comparison with the product of other 
countries American cars of any given size have a 
larger motor and a greater power production than 
the same size car from any other country. 

- In this respect, however, the six has been somewhat of a boon, for its very 
flexibility, its lower slow speed and its higher high speed, its quick acceleration, 
and other qualities have combined to make it an excellent one for the man who 
refused to change gears except when 
it was an absolute necessity. Many 
skilled drivers of sixes, knowing their 
motors well, are able to start ofif on 
the high or second gear, such is the 
ability of the six to pick up speed 
very rapidly, while the lack of any 
dead points in the cycle lessens the 
chances of stalling the motor, even 
though it be somewhat overloaded 
momentarily. 

A list of the makers, showing the 
production for 1914, indicates that no 

less than 47 will list sixes, while in 1 58.—Another Knight Sketch, Indicating the Silent 

TrvTo Kilt- in THTO nnlv Chain Which Drives the Eccentric Shaft. This Shows 

1913 there were out 20 , in 1912, only ^ working of the Sliding Sleeves. 

15; in 1911, but II ; in 1910, 9, and 

in 1909, 8. Of the 8 in 1909, just two will continue to build fours in 1914, while 
of the 9 in 1910, all but three have abandoned fours for good. Considering the 
II of 1911, but four of them are still making fours, while of the 1912 group of 
15, all but five have given up the smaller number of cylinders in favor of the 



Fig. 157.—Section Through the 
Knight Sleeve Valve Motor, Indicat¬ 
ing the Two Sleeves Which Replace 
the Valves, and the Eccentrics Which 
Drive Them. 

































































Electric Lighting and Starting 




smoother running six. These figures, showing what the foremost manufacturers 
in the automobile industry think of the six, as reflected in their own manufactur¬ 
ing plans, is perhaps more conclusive than anything else that might be said. 


of which there is a multitude since Knight of Chi- 
SLEEVE AND ROTARY cago made such a success of his sliding sleeve valve 
VALVE ENGINES, engine, and showed the world (at that time very 

much inclined to doubt its ability to run, to say noth¬ 
ing of competing with the then universal poppet form) that he had a very supe¬ 
rior device. With the adoption of this by the best firms abroad, following long 
exhaustive tests of all kinds, Knight came into his own, and to-day the licensees 
under the Knight patents include the best cars, notably the English Daimler, Aus¬ 
trian Diamler, Minerva (Belgium), Panhard (France), Mercedes (Germany), 
and in this country Stearns, Lyons, Edwards (now Willys-Knight), Stoddard- 
Dayton, Columbia (now out of business), and Moline. 

Following the great advance in quiet running which the first Knights showed, 
there was an instant rush toward that type of motor, followed in turn by a rush 
of inventors into other engines in which the conventional poppet valves and 
rotating camshaft were replaced by some form of disc, sleeve, or piston, either 
reciprocating like the Knight sleeves, or rotating; in short, any kind of a con¬ 
struction in which the camshaft and poppet valve arrangement were elim¬ 
inated. 



Naturally, not all of these were suc¬ 
cesses—in fact, the majority were fail¬ 
ures—so that following the first rush 
into a non-poppet form, there was a 
later equal rush back to it. In the in¬ 
tervening two or three years of time 
this movement occupied, the poppet type 
had been simplified materially, silenced 
so as to be as noiseless as it is practi¬ 
cable for mechanism, while improved 
design gave the flexibility higher speeds 
and greater power outputs, which at the 
time of the first Knight tests showed so 
poorly by comparison with the new 
form. 

As soon as a perfected engine of the 
Knight type had been turned out at the 
Coventry works of the Daimler (Eng¬ 
lish) Company, this was placed with the 
Royal Automobile Club of Great Britain for a thorough test. In this, the engine 
performed unusually well, the larger four-cylinder engine of 124 millimeters bore 
and 130 m.m. stroke (4% by 5!^ inches) rating at 38 horsepower delivered an 
average of 57.25 horsepower for 15 minutes, a minimum of 50.8 horsepower, and 
a grand average of 54.3 horsepower during 134 hours and 15 minutes continuous 
testing, or more than 5>^ days. After this, the engine was put back into its 
chassis, and then the car was run for 1,930.5 miles on Brooklands track, at an 
average speed of 42.4 miles an hour, followed by a run of 229 miles on the road. 

During the first bench test, the motor averaged .679 pints of fuel a brake 
horsepower-hour, and in the final bench tests but .613 pints. On the track, the 
car averaged 20.57 niiles to the gallon (Imperial), and on the road, 19.48 m.p.g. 
The car weighed 3,805 pounds on the track, and 4^085 on the road tests. At the 
same time, a smaller motor of 96 m.m. bore and 130 m.m. stroke (3 25/32 by 
inches) did equally as well, averaging 38.83 horsepower throughout 132 hours and 
58 minutes, practically 133 hours. In a car weighing 3,332.5 pounds on the track, 
it ran 1,914.1 miles at an average speed of 41.8 m.p.h., and then, weighing 3,612.5 
pounds, did 229 miles more on the road. In the road work, it averaged 19.48 


Fig. 159.—The Argyll (Scotch) Single-Sleeve Valve 
Engine, in Which the Use of an Eccentric Pin Os¬ 
cillates the Sleeve Back and Forth Around the Piston. 






























326 


The Newest Tendencies in Construction 


miles to the gallon, and on the track, 2244. After these most unusual results, 
which have not, as a matter of fact, been surpassed right up to date, the engines 
were dismantled and inspected thoroughly, but not a sign of failure, undue wear, 
heating or anything else could be found; in fact, the tool marks were still visible 
on the sleeves forming the valves of the engine. 

After this test, the Knight engine may fairly be said to have established 
itself, and previous arguments against it of inability to lubricate the sleeves and 
pistons properly, and others, were silenced. From that day to this, the motor has 
advanced steadily, until it might almost be said that its adoption by all the best 
makers is only prevented by the attitude of its inventor toward the wholesale 
issuances of licenses. To revert to the engine itself, the construction is shown in 
the sectional view of a cylinder seen in Fig. 157. In this, it will be noted that just 
outside of the usual piston there is a long sleeve marked A. Outside of this, in 
turn, is a second shorter sleeve marked B. These are moved up and down—that 
is, reciprocated, by means of eccentrics and rod connections, the eccentrics being 
upon a rotating shaft at the side of the cylinders and within the upper part of the 
crankcase. The pair of these shown are marked C and E for the A sleeve, and 
D for the B. 



The shaft corresponds very 
closely to the usual camshaft, but. 
as first brought out, it introduced 
one feature, which has since been 
found applicable to all engines and 
has been adopted widely, namely, 
the use of a silent chain for driv¬ 
ing this shaft from the crankshaft. 
This in itself is not unusual, but it 
introduced a freedom of position 
not hitherto known, for it allowed 
of placing the camshaft (in this 
case, the eccentric shaft) in any 
desirable position, instead of the 
former necessity for locating it at 
the point which the gears needed 
for its drive fixed. As Fig. 158 
shows,.the chain is placed at the 
front end and entirely enclosed. 
In this sketch, the parts are 
marked the same as in Fig. 157, 
so that the one may be referred to 
as readily as the other. 

In the upper parts of these 

Fig. 160.—The Magic Motor, in Section, Showing the Slid- sleeveS, there are tWO SetS of portS 
ing Cresceng^on Either Side^ofgheJJston Which ^Ut On the OppOSite sideS of the 

sleeves, not of the same height, 
nor of equal widths. The arrangement of the eccentrics, these port holes, and the 
lengths of the sleeves is such that at certain points in the stroke, the two openings 
G-G on one side of the piston—that is, on the inlet side in this case—register 
exactly, so that a comparatively large opening is formed connecting the inlet pipe 
/ with the interior of the cylinder at the time when the piston is beginning to 
travel down and consequently is beginning to suck in a fresh charge. The con¬ 
tinued motion of the sleeves, brought about by the rotation of the eccentric shaft 
positively driven from the main engine shaft, cuts off this opening at the conclu¬ 
sion of the suction. At this time, the piston begins to rise again and the sleeves 
'to not expose an opening, but at the conclusion of the expansion following the 
firing of the charge by the usual spark plugs, the openings /-/ on the opposite or 
exhaust side of the sleeve begin to register with the exhaust-pipe opening H, 
thus permitting the burned gases to pass out. 








328 


The Newest Tendencies in Construction 


At times, the sleeves are moving in opposite directions, which makes for a 
very quick opening, one which reaches its maximum in a space of time much 
shorter than is possible in any other form of engine. For this reason, it is 
claimed that greater power outputs are possible. The same is true of quick 
closing in those cases where it is desirable. It is claimed for this type of motor 
that a longer inlet opening is possible, thus giving the motor more gas; also, that 
a shorter exhaust opening will serve to clean out the cylinders more effectually, 
both of which contribute to greater power output, as well as superior economy. 

Among the other claims made for this type of motor are: Exactly accurate 
and consequently equal combustion chambers. In the ordinary engine, it is almost 
impossible to obtain this, due to the roughness and inequality of cast iron and the 
irregular shape of the combustion chamber. This makes for more even and regu¬ 
lar power impulses from each cylinder, and thus a more smooth-running engine; 
better shaped combustion chambers—that is, with theoretically better shapes. The 
best shape in the poppet-valve type of engine is the one with overhead valves, 
seldom used because difficult to design, construct and operate; straight line inlet 
and outlet, permitting easier gas flow without the friction set up at all bends and 
angles of the pipes. In the one case, this reduces the inflow of gases, and in the 
other it restricts the outflow of burned products; as the sleeves and piston wear 
smooth and to fit one another, the engine runs easier, more quietly, and gives 
greater power. With the poppet valve form, the opposite is true, as the engine 
wears, the engine does not run as easily, is more noisy and loses power. Most of 
the other claims made are based upon these or combinations of them. 




CHAPTER X. 

The Newest Tendencies in Construction. 


have been built to produce these same results, but in a 
OTHER SLEEVE slightly different manner; thus we have single-sleeve recip- 
AND PISTON rocating forms, in which the one sleeve is so arranged with 

VALVE ENGINES its ports and drive as to do everything that Knight’s two do. 

Then there are single-sleeve forms which rotate, others 
which oscillate—that is, rotate part of a circle, and then rotate in the opposite 
direction for any equal travel. Still others have a pair of semi-circular discs, 
partial sleeves, or crescents, as they might be called, working on opposite sides of 
the piston in special slots cut into the cylinder walls. 

Furthermore, there are the many piston forms, as, for instance, the piston 
replacing the poppet valves (two for a cylinder replaced by one piston) and per¬ 
forming their work in a similar separate chamber parallel to the bore of the cylin¬ 
der (The Miesse engine). Another is the Hewitt, in which a pair of pistons 
working on an inclination replace the ordinary valves, one being equal to the 
inlet valve complete, and the other performing all the duties of the exhaust. 
Another form has pis¬ 
tons which rotate, these 
being arranged so as to 
uncover and cover 
ports in various points 
of the revolution. 

In the Carter (Amer¬ 
ican) piston valve form 
the piston valves recip¬ 
rocate, but are placed 
within the cylinders in 
a special extension of 
the bore and directly 
above the usual work¬ 
ing pistons. As Fig. 

l6l shows, the pistons 161.—The Carter Piston Valve Engine, in Which a Piston Sliding 

are moved by means of up and Down m an Upper Extension of the Cylinder Serves as a 
cams, placed on a cam- ° Discharge the Exhaust. 

shaft which is set lengthwise of the top of the cylinder head, but entirely enclosed 
within it. This shaft is driven at the front end by an enclosed silent chain from 
another shaft, which in turn is driven by silent chain from the crankshaft. This 
is required in order to get the big reduction needed, as the piston valves have a 
total movement of but ^ inch or 34 inch in either direction. 

The two ports are extremely narrow in themselves, but extend entirely 
around the cylinder except for a very small space for the split in the compression 
rings of the piston valves. By comparison with a poppet valve of equal bore 
(3^ inches) the former had a valve area of 2.06 square inches and the latter 1.75. 
However, the latter had a quicker opening amounting to but 60 degrees of rota¬ 
tion on the flywheel, while the poppet type took 102. Moreover, at the beginning 
of the opening, the piston showed a valve area of four times that of the poppet. 

330 
































i 


332 


The Newest Tendencies in Construction 


The necessity for getting a full charge of gas into the cylinders quickly is too 
well known for its favorable influence on power, economy, speed, and other qual¬ 
ities for this to need further explanation. ^ ^ , 

In the Sphinx engine, this piston is replaced by a split ring, set into the top 
extension of the cylinder bore, and reciprocated by means of lever attachment to 
a cam on a rotating shaft. This has many of the advantages just named, and is 
very inexpensive to build. 


come next in popularity by inventors, these includ- 
RING AND DISC VALVES ing all the rotary, reciprocating, and oscillating* 

rings, discs and cylindrical sleeves, not previously 
mentioned. The Reynolds engine, invented by a Detroit man, and developed by 
interests very close to the Hudson Motor Car Co., is typical of these. 1 his is 
shown in Fig. 162, where it will be noted that the valve consists of a round, flat 
disc in which a large port is cut. This disc is connected by means of a short, 
vertical shaft with a gear in a second separate chamber above the piston space, 
this meshing with a driving pinion on a vertical driving shaft on one side, in the 
case of the first cylinder, and with the gear for the second cylinder on the other 
side. The four gears for four cylinders thus form a continuous tram, so that all 
are driven at the same speed, but every other one in the opposite direction. 

As will be noted in the figure, also, there is an inlet passage for the fresh 
gases from the carburetor on one side and another for the exhaust on the other, 
the two being separated by a wall of metal so that by no possibility could they be 

connected. In the bottom part of 
, I I each of these passages, there is 

cut a port which corresponds in 
size and location with that in the 
valve disc. Thus, when the ro¬ 
tation of the latter brings it di¬ 
rectly below either of the other 
openings, a clear port through 
from the inlet passage to the 
combustion chamber in one case 
or from it out to the exhaust pas¬ 
sage in the other, is formed. This 
form - gives a completely ma¬ 
chined combustion chamber, and 
has many of the advantages of 
sleeve forms previously men¬ 
tioned. 

Along practically the same 
lines is the cone type of rotating 
disc. In this, the disc, instead of 
being flat, is cone-shaped, and has 
the ports cut into the sloping faces of the cone. The top of the cylinder is coned 
to match it, while the passages from carburetor and to the exhaust are set up at a 
greater height on the cylinder and open in at a right angle to the face of the cone 
valve. This has an advantage in that it narrows up very materially the total width 
of the cylinders, making it more compact. This same idea is carried out in a 
similar double type, in which two single-ported cones are superimposed one upon 
the other. To offset the disadvantage of doubling the number of parts, it is said 
that this makes a construction which is tighter—that is, more “gas tight,” so 
that there is no loss of compression—while the double disc use gives a sharper 
cut-off, both at opening and closing. 

An engine is constructed also in which a pair of the cone-shaped discs is 
used to take the place of the usual two valves—that is, each disc takes the place 
of one valve and performs its functions. This is not as complicated as it sounds, 
but it has the disadvantage of making the valves smaller; in the former type, they 



Fig. 162.—Sketch Depicting the Method of Operating the 
Reynolds Disc Valve Motor, and Indicating Also the 
Method of Driving the Discs by Vertical Shaft. 


























334 


The Newest Tendencies in Construction 


can be of a diameter equal to that of the cylinder, and due to the cone shape of a 
greater surface than a flat disc of equal size with the pistons. With two of them 
placed side by side, however, the size of neither can be quite half the cylinder 
diameter. Just as the size of the valve is reduced, so the size and effective areas 
of the ports cut in them must be cut down. 

Several years ago, the Elmore two-cycle engine 
was improved with a cylindrical, hollow distributing 
valve, set lengthwise of the cylinders, and rotated 
by means of gearing. This engine is no longer 
manufactured, but this principle of a valve has been 
applied to a number of different motors, notably 
the Mead (American), in which a pair of distribut¬ 
ing rotary valves is used; the Darracq (French), 
in wjiich but one is used; the Itala '(Italian), in 
which one set vertically is used for each pair of 
cylinders, so that but two are used on a four-cylin¬ 
der motor, and others. 

The Mead is the most interesting because it is 
used in the Speedwell cars. A section through an 
engine of this form is shown in Fig. 163, this show¬ 
ing how the rotation of the valves puts the combus- Fig. 163.—Sectional Sketch Through 

tion chamber in connection with the carburetor and In^gieyind'c'an'n^Thi 
the exhaust pipe at the proper points in the stroke, on mther Side of the upper Part of 

There are numerous other different engines 
which would come under the general heading of sleeve, disc and piston valves, 
some of them offering much promise, but space will not permit a descrip¬ 
tion here. 



,, electric and pneumatic, represent the latest idea in the elim- 

GEAR-SHIFTING ination of mechanical effort on the part of the driver while 
DEVICES, operating the car. How successful these will be cannot be 

told at this time, for they have not been in use a sufficient 
length of time to bring out any disadvantages or flaws in the construction. Four 
or five of the best American cars have adopted the electric form, supposedly be¬ 
cause of its superi¬ 
ority ; but doubtless 
the fact of having a 
current generator 
on the car had 
much to do with it. 

A section through 
the form of electric 
gear shift, as used 
on the S G V car, 
is seen in Fig. 164, 
while 165 shows 
the hand wheel 
with the row of 
buttons which dis¬ 
places the usual 
lever. In order to 

get any speed, it is necessary only to press the proper button, and then press the 
clutch pedal away out, and immediately let it in again. The buttons are six in 
number for the four forwards, one reverse and neutral. The other two buttons 
indicated are for the horn and magneto cut-out and have no connection with the 
gear-shifting device. 

The principle of the latter is that of a solenoid, operating each gear and con¬ 
nected with the source of current only when the button is pressed. As long as 



Fig. 164.—The Vulcan Efectric Gear-Shifting Device, Showing the Solenoids 
and Plungers Which Move the Gears When the 
Current Is Applied. 











































t c 




\Y . 



'I 





4 


336 


The Newest Tendencies in Construction 



The Steering Wheel of 
the Haynes Car Which Uses the Elec¬ 
tric Gearshift, Indicating How the 
Push Buttons Are Arranged. 


Fig. 165.—The Steering Wheel of 
the S G V Car, Showing How the 
Electric Gearshift Is Operated on 
That Make. 


the clutch is in, nothing happens, but as the clutch is fully disengaged, it closes 
a knife switch, and thus sends the current through the particular solenoid that 
has been placed in the circuit by the button. This 
solenoid then places its gear in mesh, ready for 
action when the clutch is re-engaged. From this 
it may be seen that the actual electric shifting of 
the gears does not start until the clutch has been 
thrown out, and is concluded between that time 
and the moment when it is again fully engaged. 

It is claimed that the solenoids exercise a 
pull of 150 pounds, which is sufficient to engage 
any gear immediately and positively. Despite 

the large pull ex¬ 
erted, it is said 
that the current 
c o n s u mption is 
small, 300 shifts 
taking less than 
starting the motor once. 

Engagement of two gears at once is provided 
against by drawing all into neutral before mak¬ 
ing any shift. Stripping gears through shifting 
while the clutch is in is impossible, for no cur¬ 
rent can pass until the clutch is thrown out. As 
a further provision against mistakes or troubles, 
an interlocking device is connected . with the but¬ 
tons so that it is not possible to press two of them 
down at once. 

It is said that the total weight added to the 
car is but 46 pounds while the advantage of doing away with a lever and thus 
making the car accessible equally from 
either side is worth as much as that. In 
addition, such a device makes driving saf¬ 
er, for the hands need not be removed 
from the wheel for gear shifting. 

The same device is used on the Haynes 
car, but the arrangement of the buttons is 
decidedly different. On that car, they are 
bunched up around a circular boss in the 
center of the steering wheel and raised 
somewhat above it. This arrangement 
with the horn brings the grouping .to be 
noted in Fig. 166. Another and a differ¬ 
ent arrangement is used on the Norwalk 
car, in which the row of buttons is in a 
long line, as on the S G V, shown in Fig. 

165 ; but the row is placed below the steer¬ 
ing wheel; on the post, in fact. It is, how¬ 
ever, carried out far enough so that it may 
be reached by the fingers without remov¬ 
ing them from the rim of the wheel. This 
would appear to be at a disadvantage as 
compared with the other two, for the but¬ 
ton pressed is not visible, and can be seen 

onlv bv leaninp" over to one siHe Control Group on the Packard 

Uii^ uy icdinug qvei to one biae. Sixes, Indicating the Box by Means of Which 

The tendency m this arrangement is to ' Electrical Operations Are Governed, 
bring everything which must be operated or controlled to one point, and that a 
point very close to the driver’s hands, and exceedingly accessible for him. Some- 
















338 


The Newest Tendencies in Construction 


what the same idea is worked out on the 1914 Packard cars, in which a control 
box, placed on the steering post just below the steering wheel, gives control 
all the lights, the electric system, including starting and ignition, and every othfer 
unit in the control system, excepting only the gear shifting and the brakes. /A 
view of the control group of a 1914 Packard, as in Fig. 167, shows this 
plainly. I 

must be considered when the wonderful advances 
THE ALL-ELECTRIC CAR made in electrical devices for the motor car fare 

considered. A form in which the transmission 
was displaced by a dynamo, and the clutch and flywheel by an electric generator, 
was brought out by the Columbia firm several years ago, but this was too far 
in advance of the times, and, being poorly received, was withdrawn from the 
market. There are signs, now that Columbia is out of business and electricity 
has become deservedly popular and widely used for motor cars, that this form 
will be revived. The usual speed lever was replaced by a smaller and shorter 
one, which could be placed in any desired position, alongside of the seat, on the 
dash, on the steering wheel—anywhere, in fact. This did not have the usual 
three or four speeds, but allowed about six or seven in both directions—that is, 
seven forward and seven reverse. Furthermore, by adding slightly to the wiring, 
this number could be extended indefinitely up to, say, 20 or more speeds in both 
directions. At least one brake and possibly both could be eliminated, for the 
drag of the motor armature could be used as a brake much more efficiently than 
any mechanical form, capable of much quicker and more effective application, and 
operated by the same lever as the speeds. 

Since the generator armature replaced the flywheel and clutch, while the 
dynamo or motor displaced the transmission, there was a very slight increase in 
weight—say, not to exceed 250 pounds over the same car with a mechanical 
clutch, transmission, brake operation, etc. What was lost by the additional weight 
of these units was gained back partly by the saving of weight in brake parts, 
operating rods, levers, bearings, etc., including, of course, gear-shifting rods, 
levers, etc. From the operator’s standpoint, this had many valuable advantages 
over any car now on the market. The arrangement of motor and generator 
provided a starter, under present arrangements would give current for all lights 
(electric lighting for motor cars was unknown at that time), gave many times as 
many speeds as are now available, simplified control, a- lessened number of parts 
with consequently less opportunity for wear and noise, gave a more efficient 
drive than the present mechanical form, so that economy of operation would re¬ 
sult when it was fully developed, while the unusually numerous speeds, one for 
every possible contingency, would make for economy of operation as well, and 
many other advantages. 

In giving thought to these, and their value to the motor-car owner and 
operator, looking at the subject, of course, from the standpoint of what present- 
day cars offer and what present-day owners demand, it would appear as if the. 
all-electric—or, more correctly, the gasoline-electric—form of car is more than a 
possibility, it is a comparatively near probability. The coming of the electric 
transmission with gasoline motor drive will force many changes, now unforseen, 
in cars which do not use it, in order to be able to compete with it. 

has come to the front very rapidly in the. improvement of 
WORM GEARING modern motor cars and the gradual perfection of their de¬ 
tail parts. A few years ago, say five, it was admitted that the 
worm gear had many advantages, such a great reduction in speed for very small 
sizes, quiet running, and others, but its efficiency was considered to be very low, 
in addition to which it was thought that taking up the thrust of the worm action 
required unusual bearings, making an expensive construction, while the small use 
of worm gears, making very few of them to machine, ran up the expense of 
constructing them. 















The Newest Tendencies in Construction 


Fig. 168—Worm-Driven Rear Axle Used on the Detroit Electric 
Cars, Indicating the Location of the Worm Below the 
Axle, the Best Position for Easy Lubrication. 


They had so many advantages, however, that a few brave spirits insisted on 
using them, notably Dennis, the famous English motor truck builder. For his 
work, where a great reduction of speed between the motor and the rear wheels, 
and preferably between the transmission and the wheels, was necessary, he found 
them excellent. By using them continuously, he disproved the assertion that they 
had a short life, and proved on the contrary that they had a very long life. Fur¬ 
thermore, he found that their silence and efficiency improved with use—that is, 
the longer they were used, 
the more efficient and quiet 
they became. He disproved 
another mooted point, also, 
namely, that they were diffi¬ 
cult to lubricate, finding this 
a most simple matter. 

As he continued to use 
them year after year, and to 
use a greater number each 
season, he found that their 
first cost of cutting and the 
secondary cost of mounting 
and supporting them were 
gradually lowered, so that 
they soon came into a plane 
in which they could compete 
as to cost with bevel gears, 
chain drives, and other forms. When that stage was reached, it was but a short 
time before many other makers began to take them up, both for motor trucks 
and pleasure cars. To-day, there are at least a dozen reputable foreign makers, 
and more than that of American firms, using this form of gear with success. 
Moreover, its use is growing more rapidly than any other, unless it be the silent 
chain, which is not, however, finding favor for final drives where the worm gear 
has its strongest hold. 

In the last year or two, they have 
made considerable progress in this 
country for use on electric cars, 
where they present a more silent 
drive than either the chain or the 
bevel. As the electric has been con¬ 
sidered a particularly quiet car from 
the beginning, this added silence was 
desirable, so that this move is not to 
be wondered at. Fig. i68 shows a 
skeleton view of the Daimler-Lan- 
chester type of worm and gear, as 
used on the 1914 Detroit electric cars. 
In this, it will be noted that the worm 
is placed below the gear. In this po¬ 
sition, it gives a low center of grav¬ 
ity, allows of hanging the whole car 
very low, but primarily it keeps the 
worm covered with and running in 
oil. On the other hand, advocates of the overhead position say the form shown 
reduces the clearance so much that a car with it cannot be used outside of cities 
and paved streets. 

As a basis for comparison, the newly developed DeDion-Bouton (French) 
form is shown in Fig. 169. This is of the overhead type, with an entirely dififer- 
ent style of worm. Looking back at the Detroit, it will be noted that the worm 
has an hourglass or waisted form, the diameter at the ends being much larger 


Fig. 169.—Worm Gear from DeDion Bouton (French) 
Car, Showing the Use of Worm Shaft Placed 
Above the Gear. 















The Newest Tendencies in Construction 


342 


than at the center. In the DeDion form, on the contrary, the diameter is the 
same throughout its length. The hourglass form is supposed to give more sur¬ 
face in contact, and thus slightly greater efficiency. On the other hand, it is 
said to be more difficult to lubricate and to be subject to greater wear because of 
this greater surface of contact. 



have improved remarkably in the last year or two, doubtless 
BEVEL GEARS under the spur of the increasingly popular worm, with its 
numerous advantages. A form which has just been developed 
in this country for final drive is the 
so-called skew bevel, used on all 1914 
Packard rear axles, and shown in Fig. 

170. On close study, it will be seen 
that the teeth of the big bevel do not 
radiate from the center, as in the ordi¬ 
nary bevel, but have a curved shape, 
like a worm. The driving bevel has 
similar curved teeth. It is said that 
this form has a number of advantages 
all its own, with practically every ad¬ 
vantage of both bevel and worm, ex¬ 
cepting only the great reduction in 
speeds possible with small sizes. 

The success of this form, an en- 

tire novelty developed by a firm which pig, iro.^Worm or skew Bevel Gears, Used on 1914 
desired worm-gear advantages without Packard Cars, Supposed to Have the Advan- 
.1 r 4-1, ’i. 1 1 4- tages of Both Worm and Bevel Forms. 

the use of the worm itself, shows what « 

can be done in motor car development, when study is devoted to any one 

part or series of parts. 


for driving various units on the car, has made equal 
THE SILENT CHAIN, progress in the last year, since it has become general 
knowledge that this, allowed a freedom of placing of 
the units not possible with any gear or shaft form of drive which prescribed an 
exact location and an invariable one. With the chain, the units may be located 
to the best all-around advantage. Furthermore, it has been found equally effi¬ 
cient and more silent than gears, so that the 
substitution makes a more quiet car or motor. 
In Fig. 171 is shown the gear case as it would 
have been called a year ago of a new Darracq 
(French) motor. Silent chains have been used 
instead of two trains of gears, however, this 
making possible a better location of the shaft 
centers and a more desirable relation of the 
speeds of the three shafts than would be pos¬ 
sible with gears. 

In this case, the chain is used to drive the 
camshaft from the crankshaft at the lower 
left. Then, another sprocket on the camshaft 
drives the auxiliary shaft at the extreme right. 
Referring back to the Knight engine drawing, 
Fig. 158, it will be noted that^he eccentric 
shaft IS driven from the crankshaft by silent chain, Knight, as pointed out pre¬ 
viously, having been one of the first to appreciate the use of the silent chain. 
In Fig. 161, the Carter piston valve engine, four different silent chains are used. 
One of these drives from the crankshaft to a pump shaft, thence another drives 
the magneto shaft, some 5 or 6 inches above it. A third drives an intermediate 
shaft about 7 or 8 inches up the motor’s height, from which the fourth drives the 



ry 

Drive by Means of Silent Chain, a Method 
Which Is Growing Rapidly in Favor. 










The Newest Tendencies in Construction 




camshaft across the top of the cylinders and at least lo or more inches above the 
intermediate shaft. Considering these distances, it will be realized at once how 
impossible it would have been to do this same work with a train of spur gears; 
it would have been necessary to use bevel gears and shafts, with numerous bear¬ 
ings, while the three different planes of action of the chains would have made 
necessary some very long and, in fact, projecting shafts. With these bevel gears, 
not less than twelve, or six pairs, being necessary, there would have been con¬ 
siderable additional trouble in working out just the right speed ratios. 

If any further proof of the all-around benefits of the use of silent chains be 
necessary, the Mead engine, in Fig. 165, should be referred to. In this, the 
valve shafts—if they can be called that—are approximately 10 inches apart, in a 
horizontal line at the tops of the cylinders, and from 18 inches upward away from 
the crankshaft whence they must be driven. Consider for a moment what com¬ 
plications would ensue from trying to drive these two shafts from the crank¬ 
shaft, using spur gears, bevels and shafts, or any method other than chains; con¬ 
sider what number of gears, shafts, bearings, lubricating devices, adjustments, 
etc., would be necessary, and the great advantages of the chain become apparent. 
The silent chain has all the advantages of the plain roller chain, with the addi¬ 
tional, most important, feature of being noiseless, and through its possibilities in 
the way of extending its width indefinitely, of greater power-transmitting ability. 

have been brought forth by the desire of car drivers to do 
FOUR-SPEED everything on one gear—that is, without changing speed, 

TRANSMISSIONS as previously spoken of. While it may sound paradoxical 

to say that more speeds make less changing, yet such is the 
case. Where there are but two speeds to be had, as in the old form of planetary 
gear, everything must be taken on high or low, there is no alternative, and this 
requires that the low be very low, so that the engine would be able to pull the car 
up any kind of hill or heavy going. It required also that the high be not too 
high, for the very slowness of the slow speed made drivers loath to use it unless 
absolutely necessary. That being the case, it was necessary to have the high 
fairly low, in order that the driver would not stall his engine or be obliged to 
change to low at the very first slope or deep sand. 

When three speeds came into use, it was possible to have a very low slow 
speed, so that the car could take any hill, no matter how steep, at a much higher 
high speed than before, and an intermediate. Now, with this combination and 
with a higher-powered and better-balanced engine than was the case previously, 
a driver was able to get his car in motion, and then keep to the high speed prac¬ 
tically all of the time, except some very bad situation or for exceedingly steep 
hills. Knowing how to use his machine, such a driver rushed the hills, and in 
this way was able to make many on high which with the previous two-speed gear 
could not be accomplished on the low speed only. 

With still more powerful aUd better-balanced motors, a large portion of 
them sixes, with an almost perfect balance as has been pointed out previously, 
it is possible with a four-speed transmission to divide the whole range of speeds 
into four parts (not necessarily equal parts, although some makers do this), and 
still have a direct drive on third or fourth as preferred, on which a clever driver 
can do as much as 90 per cent, of his work (excepting driving in city traffic, of 
course). And this is exactly what has been done; the best makers have re¬ 
sponded each year to the demand for more power, better balance, and different 
gearing which would minimize the amount of gearing, until to-day we have in 
the six-cylinder motor with four-speed gear box a combination which allows the 
greater part of the driving, outside of the crowded city streets, to be done on 
one direct drive speed. 

The question of silence has been mentioned many times previously; in the 
alteration of transmission gears, it has been necessary' to produce a combination 
of gearing which could be used very widely—that is, a large part of the time— 
but which would be exceedingly quiet. No man minds a grinding of gears when 








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346 


The Newest Teridencies in Construction 


climbing a steep hill, going through deep sand, across a plovved-up road, or one 
that is being repaired, but a person cannot stand that all day. This being the 
case, it was necessary to provide one gear for general use, and on which the 
greater number of units would be out of use, and those necessary fairly quiet in 
action. Such is the direct drive. 

On four-speed gears, some have two direct drives on both third and fourth, 
others have the direct drive on the fourth only—that is, the highest speed—while 
still others have it on the third or second highest speed, claiming this to be of 
the most all-around use. The first named brings in complications and weight; 
between the others, it is a matter of personal opinion and driving habits as to 
which is preferable. 


used by one prominent maker in 1913, adopted by another 
THE TWO-SPEED of even more prominence for 1914, and promised on a 
REAR AXLE .number of high-grade cars for 1915, is the further work¬ 

ing out of this matter of speeds. A two-speed axle gives 
in effect double the usual number of gear changes in the transmission, since each 
one of these may be used with both rear axle combinations. Thus, with a three- 
speed and reverse gear box, it produces six forward speeds and two reverse, 
while in combination with a four-speed gearset, it produces eight forward and 
two reverse rates of travel. 

The principal idea of its adoption lies in economy of operation. Thus, for 
city work it is conceded that lower gearing throughout is highly desirable, since 
the slower speeds necessitated by heavy traffic may be produced in that case with 
a slower engine speed. As for example, a 4 to i reduction is better than a 3 to i, 
since with the former a speed of 8 miles an hour can be produced with the engine 
running at a more reasonable rate than with the latter. This is as true of the 
intermediate and low speeds as of 
high. Further than the matter of 
reasonable engine speed is the ne¬ 
cessity for gear changing with the 
greater reduction ratio—that is, 
with 3 to I gearing the driver would 
have to change down and up more 
times than with the lower 4 to i 
reduction. Since the engine can be 
run at more reasonable rates, and 
rates more in proportion to the ac¬ 
tual travel of the car, fuel is saved. 

Consequently, the smaller (4 to i) 
reduction is more economical as well 
as more convenient. A further point 
is that the slower the engine runs, 
the less the wear and tear on it, consequently the lower ratio scores again. 

Granting, then, that a lower gearing is more desirable for city use than a 
high one, the proposition is reversed for the country. Here there is no traffic to 
wiggle through or worm around, no pedestrians to avoid, nothing but a straight 
road ahead. In such a situation, the greater gear reduction—that is, the one 
which gives the greatest car speed (3 to i, as in the example above) is the most 
desirable one. Furthermore, it is the most economical one, for when the car is 
gotten into motion, when the driver has got “her” rolling, the car travels better, 
more smoothly, and with less fuel at a fairly high rate than at a lower one. In 
the country, then, the higher rates are more desirable. 

With a single set of gearing—that is, with the ordinary three or four-speed 
gearset—it is impossible to have both, but with the two-speed rear axle the driver 
obtains both with all the advantages of the low rate in city and the faster travel 
in the country, also the economy at all times. The change from one to the other 
is made simply, in the case of the Austin, shown in Fig. 172, by pulling a short, 



Fig;. 172.—The Two-Speed Rear-Axle Drive of the 
Austin Car. By Means of Two Clutches, One Seen on 
the Driving Shaft, the Other on the Axle, the Proper 
Connections Are Made for the Two Drives, One Clutch 
Throwing Out When the Other Is Thrown in. 






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separate lever, and in the Cadillac by pressing a button, then throwing out the 
clutch and allowing it to engage again. 

Another use of the two-speed axle is being forced to the front rapidly with 
the development of the cyclecar, and that is its use in that form of machine as a 
substitute for the transmission. The car is so small and light that few speeds are 
necessary, and it is simpler, more convenient and cheaper to use a two-speed axle 
than to utilize a separate transmission. In the cyclecar, every one of these points 
of lowered first cost, lighter weight, simpler construction, and greater convenience 
of construction and operation is of value, much more so than would be the case in 
a larger, more pretentious machine. 



has undergone great changes in the past two years, due 
CAR SPRINGING partly to natural refinement of the entire car, the springs 
coming in for their share, partly to the cry for increased 
comfort, and in no small part to the situation which was brought forth by higher 
power cars of longer wheelbase, carrying a greater load at a greater rate of 
travel, comfort being necessary whatever the load or speed. It might be sup¬ 
posed that the springs of ten years ago, when the maximum horsepower was 
about 12, the average wheelbase around 90 inches, the usual load but two per¬ 
sons, and speeds always below ten to twelve miles an hour, and even that not 
maintained "for more than a few miles, would be decidedly dififerent from those of 
to-day when powers range up to 80 and 90 in common use with 65 a fair aver¬ 
age for big cars, with wheelbases from 125 to 145 and higher, with loads up to 
7, 8 and even 9 persons in a car weighing, empty, as much as 4,500, and with 
speed possibilities on the high gear of frorh 5 to 65 miles an hour and comfortable 
riding at all of them, whether over city pavements or country roads. 

Yet that is just what 
the spring makers have 
been obliged to contend 
with. The fact that they 
have not been entirely 
successful is not surpris¬ 
ing, but this fact is evi¬ 
denced by the large and 
increasing number of 
shock absorbers, shock 
preventers, bumpers, buf¬ 
fers, recoil absorbers, and 
similar devices put on 
even the best of cars, sup¬ 
posedly with the best of 
springs. 

Any device which ap¬ 
pears to promote easier 
riding of a car at high 
rates and a wide range of 
travel can get a trial to-day. Among the arrangements which are being tried with 
considerable success are the single-leaf cantilever spring, the double-branched or 
two-part cantilever, quarter elliptics for cycle and other small cars, underslinging 
of individual springs and all around the car partly to remedy the riding qualities 
and partly for other purposes to be mentioned later, coil springs alone and in 
combination with better-known forms, and a number of others, some of which 
might be classed as freakish. 

Underslinging is used the most for the double reason, it is said, to make the 
car ride somewhat easier, and it brings the center of gravity and the center of 
mass of the whole vehicle down lower. Lowering these two last makes the car 
more stable at all speeds, since it hugs the ground more closely, while it renders 
the same almost impossible to tip over. With the best makers, the three-quarter 


Fig. 173.—Entirely Underslung Car, with Frames Below the Springs, 
Ditched at an Angle of 60 Degrees to the Horizontal, to 
Show Stability of This Form of Springing. 










350 


The Newest Teiidencies in Construction 


elliptic spring with the end of the upper member fastened to a plate formed by a 
projection of the main frame at the rear, and the lower member underslung, are 
the most popular. This type of spring reduces the height of the rear end of 
the car by at least four or five inches, the thickness of the spring plus the diameter 
of the axle housing. In some cases, where the latter is unusually large, it makes 
as great a difference as 7 or 8 inches. In addition, it is said to give greatly im¬ 
proved riding qualities. 

When this construction is used, almost straight springs are utilized—that is, 
the springs have little or no camber, not to exceed an inch or two, as compared 
with from 5 to 9 inches usually necessary. This flatness is used at the urging of 
the spring men, who say 
that a very flat spring is 
not only better looking but 
has greater resilience and 
easier riding qualities than 
the same quantity and 
quality of material made 
up into a deeply curved 
spring. 

As showing how under¬ 
slinging all around low¬ 
ers the center of gravity 
and makes the car difiicult 
to tip over. Fig. 173 is of¬ 
fered. In this, a Regal car, in which the frame is hung below the springs, is seen 
on a bank with which it makes an angle of at least 50 degrees—60, the maker 
claims. Yet, it can be seen that even at this extreme position, the car is not in 
any immediate danger of tipping, and with the power on could be depended to 
pull itself out of this situation. Although not a stunt that anyone would care~ to 
attempt deliberately, it is worth knowing that one’s car can stand that sort of 
thing, as it gives confidence when a considerable angle is attained in turning out 
for a team of something of that sort. 

Of the cantilever type of spring, Lanchester in England was the first to use 
it, and many persons still call it the Lanchester type. This consists of a perfectly 

straight, or nearly straight, 
spring clamped to the rear 
axle at an inclination, its mid¬ 
dle fixed in a clip of the side 
of the frame so that it can 
turn about this as a center— 
that is, the front can rise 
slightly and the rear drop 
equally, or vice versa, while 
the extended front end is 
shackled to the frame by 

F.g, 175.-A For™ of Double Cantilever Rear Spring, as Used “fa" ^diliary bracket 

on the Bayard-Clement, a High-Grade French Car. and Shackle. ObviOUsly, there 

can be little or no action at the 
front end unless the rear moves, but any motion of the rear brings the central 
pivot into play and then the front shackle begins to work. 

The fact of the rear axle being attached to the rear end of the spring makes 
this portion of it act as a sort of radius rod, so that member may be omitted, 
saving weight and number of parts. The very shape of the spring and its method 
of fastening make side sway almost impossible, so that this form has an advan¬ 
tage over almost any other form of spring. Another point in its favor is that it 
is an exceedingly simple construction to look at and actually. The view of a 
spring of this type on a 1914 Berliet (French) car, shown in Fig. 174, gives a 
good idea of the arrangement. In this case, the rear end of the spring is fas- 




Fig. 174.—Cantilever Rear Spring, Which Will Be Much Used in 
1914 and 1915, Because of Its Easy Riding Qualities 
and Side Sway Prevention, 









S52 


The Newest Tendencies in Construction 


tened on top of the rear axle, while in the case of the King and Pathfinder cars 
it is fixed below the axle, thus lowering the rear end slightly as compared with 
the method shown. 

When the form just shown is made in double form—that is, with a pair of 
springs—the riding qualities are said to be even better than with the single form. 
The double type is used on the 1914 Clement-Bayard (French) cars, a photo¬ 
graph of these being reproduced in Fig. 175. Here it will be noted that instead 
of being attached either above the axle or below, as in the several cases just 
mentioned, it is fixed in both places. Similarly at the front end, where no shackle 
is used, the upper spring end being attached permanently to the upper pin and 
the lower member to the lower pin. The middle parts of the springs are sep¬ 
arated by a correctly sized distance block, which is pivotally mounted on the frame 
so that the entire spring is able to turn about that point. 

In this view, it will be noted that the previous construction is modified 
slightly in that the ends of the spring are thinner, of a less number of plates, and 
thus more flexible. That is as it should be, for with the fixing of the front ends, 
more flexibility is needed there. 

A spring form being adopted for cyclecars and similar small vehicles is the 
quarter elliptic. This is often mistakenly called a cantilever, but it possesses none 
of the attributes of the cantilever nor the method of fixing which gave that form 
its name. While this type may be both flexible and strong, and actually is said to 
have excellent riding qualities, it does not look like one which would be very 
trustworthy. Its action is simple, the axle rising in an arc of a circle formed by 
the lower leaf of the spring straightening out as it rises. This action necessitates 
the use of a radius rod to guide the axle when rising and falling, and one will 
be clearly noted in the picture. When properly mounted on cars of 750 pounds 
weight and less, a pair of these in the rear, and in some cases four of them, used 
all around,,are said to give easy riding and astonishing flexibility and resilience. 

Taken altogether, it would be difficult to say that any one type, size, style, 
or make of spring now used under automobiles will be in use five years from 
to-day. Like all of the other parts of the car, the springs are undergoing a grad¬ 
ual transition, but from their influence on comfort, the springs are receiving more 
attention than any other one part of the car. Some progress has been made with 
air cushions, notably the Westinghouse, for attachment to the ends of present 
semi-elliptic springs; but this has not been sufficient to warrant the prediction 
that they will be,widely used in the future, while at present their cost ($80 apiece, 
or $300 a car) is prohibitive and beyond what the results achieved with them 
would warrant. 

is the keynote of the additions and refinements being 
CONVENIENCE AND made in the 1914 car. When air compressors are added, 
LABOR SAVING it is to save the back-breaking work of pumping up a 

tire by hand; it is so much easier to press a lever, throw¬ 
ing the compressor into engagement with the motor, then stand, gauge in hand, 
watching it do the work, than to do this same work slowly and laboriously your¬ 
self. Similarly, demountable rims and the carrying of an extra tire on a spare 
rim, fully inflated and ready for instant application with little or no work and 
not more than a few minutes’ delay, are for the promotion of ease, comfort, and 
general convenience. 

Wire wheels, now coming into general use, serve the same useful purpose, a, 
set of five with five tires weighing no more than the usual four wood ones. In 
case of a puncture, the driver jacks up, takes off the offending member, puts on 
the spare wheel with its fully inflated tire, lets the car down onto it, and is off 
again, within five minutes of the time he punctured, and with little or no work. 
Even jacks have been made more convenient, easy to operate both up and down, 
with greater leverage so that not as much muscular effort is required to raise the 
same weight of car, and with the operating handle carried out to such a distance 
that it may be operated without stooping or bending under the car—that is, the 
present forms allow jacking up a car with a minimum of discomfort. 




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354 


The Newest Tendencies in Construction 


All the electric starting, lighting, and ignition devices have been improved 
to lessen work and increase comfort. The increase in the number of speed by 
four-speed gearsets and two-speed axles has been in the interests of less work and 
more pleasure. Similarly with the majority of new ideas. 

Pumping up tires by motor has made the slowest progress of all, perhaps; 
why, it is difficult to explain. At present, however, it is making rapid progress 
In 1913, a considerable number of the best makers 
fitted small four-cylinder air compressors for this pur¬ 
pose, but it is notable that few of the 1914 product 
show multicylinder pumps, the great majority being 
of the single-cylinder type. Moreover, this addition 
has extended down into the medium and modest-priced 
cars, to an extent that almost warrants the prediction 
of universal pumps in 1915. 

Fig. 176 shows the form used on the Cole cars 
and a number of others, this being of a peculiar dia¬ 
phragm type which will not allow any oil from the 
driving mechanism pass through with the air and thus 
destroy the rubber in the tires from within. Its drive 
will be noted; it is suspended at the front, close to the 
radiator, with its gear directly alongside of a gear on 
the camshaft. When air is required, pulling the lever 
seen at the right of the pump draws its gear over into 
mesh with the driver, and the pump starts to operate 
and to furnish the air required. 

Another method of driving is indicated in Fig. 

177, showing the construction used on the Pullman 
car. Here the pump is hung below and at.one side of the flywheel, which has 
gear teeth cut into its periphery. The driving gear of the single-cylinder air 
pump may be swung into mesh with these by pulling on the lever and handle out¬ 
side of the frame, this drawing the upper rod, which necessarily draws the ver¬ 
tical one, and since the right side of the pump is pivotally attached to the frame, 

the left side must rise in a circle about that 
point, and the gear teeth mesh. As soon as 
this is done, air is ready for use. 

In the French design, shown in Fig. 178, a 
more simple yet decidedly novel arrange¬ 
ment is seen. Here the pump of the single¬ 
cylinder form is incorporated in the cover of 
the gearbox. It is not connected up, how¬ 
ever, but has a small clutch by means of 
which it is thrown into and out of engage¬ 
ment. At the side of the car, on the frame, is 
a round metal box, apparently with a hinged 
cover. Opening this, one finds a lever at the 
top which throws the clutch into engagement 
so that the pump will begin to work, while 
below is found the air pipe to which the hose 
is attached for conducting this air to the tire 
which is to be inflated. This is perhaps the 
most compact, the neatest, and most sensible 
arrangement shown. Sometimes the pump is 
attached to the extended front end of the 
camshaft with a finger lever for throwing it into mesh and out again. To use the 
pump, the hood is raised, and the lever thrown over. 

By locating the speedometer gears on the front axle, considerable noise 
results, as well as a poor-looking arrangement. Designers have begun to get 
away from both, but it has necessitated many ingenious methods. One way has 















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356 


The Newest Tendencies in Construction 



Fig-. 178.—Handy Location of the One-Cylinder Air 
Compressor in the Gear Box with Lever Operating 
the Clutch, and Air Pipe Outlet Cleverly Covered by 
Round Metal Disc at Side of Frame. 


been to drive the speedometer shaft through the center of the axle spindle on 
which the wheel turned, thus doing away with the exposed gears and their noise, 
but making the all-important spindle more complicated and possibly weaker be¬ 
cause of the hole through it. Another method which is meeting with much favor 
is the application of a gear to the main shaft, just back of the transmission, and 
driving the speedometer from this. It has the advantage of being under the body, 
where it does not collect dust or dirt, and where its small noise is not magnified 
by sounding boards like the front fenders. In addition, this position puts it 
where it cannot be tampered with 
readily, where it cannot be injured in 
any ordinary collision, and where the 
length of shaft required to drive it is 
as short as possible. 

When the transmission is not made 
a unit with the engine and clutch, 
and this construction is used, the 
speedometer gear is placed right back 
of the clutch. In this position, on 
practically all cars, it is directly be¬ 
neath the dashboard, where all speed¬ 
ometers are placed now. Conse¬ 
quently, all the shaft that is required 
is a simple straight length of per¬ 
haps 28 to 30 inches, reaching in al¬ 
most a straight line from the driving 
gear to the instrument on the dash. In addition to making the shaft short, simple 
and inexpensive, this has the advantage of accuracy, for the shorter and straighter 
the shaft, the more accurately it works, and the less danger there is of its get¬ 
ting out of order. 

In general, the cars of 1914 are characterized by simpler lines, more effi¬ 
cient and powerful motors, more comfortable and easy-riding springs, frames, 

wheels, tires, and upholstery, while the labor and care of operation is reduced to a 
The cars are made better throughout, of superior design, better mate¬ 
rials, fashioned better and fitted together in a more 
careful and accurate manner. For these reasons, 
they are less liable to the accidents, derangements and 
lack of adjustment noted on the early cars. Taking it 
all in all, the cars are as cheap in price as may be 

expected, and present as great or greater value in 

each case than ever before. In fact, the greatest 
trouble for the man deciding to buy a 1914 motor car 
is the decision as to which make he should choose of 
the many offered at the price he is prepared to pay, 
so good are all of them. 

This concludes the last chapter of ‘‘What Every 
_ Owner Should Know About His Automobile.” We 

from^'the Main shafEiristead oTthe have endeavored in a most impartial way. to cover 
Front Wheel (Cole Car). every point of Special importance on the motor car. 

Our principal aim has been to help the motorist in a praclfcal way to a better 
understanding of his car—which makes for more enjoyable motoring, a lower 
cost of upkeep, and longer life of the car. We hope we have succeeded in our 
efforts. 


minimum. 



THE END. 










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